TRACTS, MATHEMATICAL AN [...] PHILOSOPHICAL.
BY CHARLES HUTTON, LL. D.
F. R. S. OF LOND. AND EDINB. MEMB. OF THE SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF HOLLAND, AND PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY, WOOLWICH.
LONDON: PRINTED FOR G. G. J. AND J. ROBINSON, PATERNOSTER ROW.
M.DCC.LXXXVI.
MASTER GENERAL OF THE ORDNANCE, (UNDER WHOSE AUSPICES THE EXPERIMENTS IN GUNNERY WERE MADE)
THESE TRACTS ARE RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, BY
THE Author preſumes to lay the following Tracts before the Public with the greater confidence, as he hopes theſe productions of his leiſure will be found to bear a due relation to the engagements of his official duty.
The preference given of late, even among profeſſed philoſophers, to ſtudies of a leſs abſtract kind, has too frequently diverted the purſuits of mathematicians into paths leſs ſuited to their talents, from the deſire of a vain and fleeting popularity, inſtead of the more laudable ambition of making real improvements in the ſciences which they had profeſſed to cultivate. The humble conſciouſneſs which the author has ever entertained of the limits of his own abilities, has, he hopes, preſerved him from this common and pernicious vanity. However ſolicitous to extend and diver⯑ſify his own acquirements, he can only hope to add, and that a little, to the public ſtock of knowledge, in thoſe parts of ſcience to which his early [vi]habits, and ſubſequent occupations, have led him peculiarly to conſe⯑create his ſtudies.
The very honourable diſtinction paid to the author by the Royal Society, for his former experiments in gunnery, as well as their general indulgence to his attempts in other mathematical ſubjects, would perhaps have given an obvious deſtination to theſe papers, had he not thought their publication in a collective form, better adapted, from the connec⯑tion of their ſubject, to extend their utility.
The firſt ſix tracts in this volume will be found to have an obvious connection in reſpect to their ſubject; having all of them a tendency either to illuſtrate the hiſtory, or improve the theory of that ſpecies of mathematical quantities called Series. The particular ſubjects of theſe tracts are ſufficiently diſcuſſed in the introduction to each of them, re⯑ſpectively, to render any previous detail unneceſſary in this place. The author hopes, however, they will be thought to have ſome claim to the merit of invention; and that their utility will be readily recognized by thoſe who are converſant in theſe ſubjects.
The ſeventh and eighth tracts are rather detached in their nature, re⯑lating to ſubjects purely geometrical. It is hoped, however, that the former of them, being an inveſtigation of ſome new and curious properties of the ſphere and cone, which have always been a fruitful and favourite ſource of exerciſe to geometricians, will be both acceptable and uſeful [vii]to thoſe who are engaged in ſimilar ſpeculations. The latter problem, concerning the geometrical diviſion of a circle, having hitherto been deemed impracticable, the ſolution of it is here given, it is preſumed, for the firſt time.
The largeſt, and, in the author's opinion, the moſt important of theſe tracts, is the ninth, or laſt; the main purpoſe of which is altogether practical, though founded in a very ſubtle and complex theory.
Though the late excellent Mr. Robins firſt ſhewed the importance of this theory, and invented a very curious mechanical apparatus for the experiments which he made to verify it, the author is perſuaded that none have been hitherto made with cannon balls ſo completely, as thoſe here related and deſcribed; and that theſe are the firſt from which the Data for determining the reſiſtance of the medium can be accurately derived. It has been the author's great object, next to the accuracy of the experiments, and the full and preciſe deſcription of them, to ſimplify the theorems deduced from them, or from the theory itſelf; of which an example may be found in the new rule given for the velocity of the ball. And it is preſumed that the table of the correſponding Data, namely, of the Dimenſions and Elevation of the gun, and the Range, Velocity and Time of ſlight of the ball, is now ſo accurately framed, and ſo perſpicuous, that the ſeveral caſes of gunnery may be very certainly and eaſily referred to it; and rules of practice, adapted to the common purpoſes of the artilleriſt, may be very readily formed upon theſe principles.
1. ABOUT five years ſince I diſcovered a very general and eaſy method of valuing ſeries whoſe terms are alternately poſitive and negative, which equally applies to ſuch ſeries, whether they be converging, or diverging, or their terms all equal; together with ſeve⯑ral other properties relating to certain ſeries: and as we ſhall have occaſion to deliver ſome of thoſe matters in the courſe of theſe tracts, I ſhall take this opportunity of premiſing a few ideas and remarks on the nature and valuation of ſome of the claſſes of ſeries which form the object of thoſe communications. This is done with a view to obviate [2]any miſconceptions that might, perhaps, be made concerning the idea annexed to the term value of ſuch ſeries in thoſe intended tracts, and the ſenſe in which it is there always to be underſtood; which is the more neceſſary, as many controverſies have been warmly agitated concerning theſe matters, not only of late, by ſome of our own countrymen, but alſo by others among the ableſt mathematicians in Europe, at different periods in the courſe of the preſent century; and all this, it ſeems, through the want of ſpecifying in what ſenſe the term value or ſum was to be underſtood in their diſſertations. And in this diſcourſe, I ſhall follow, in a great meaſure, the ſentiments and manner of the late famous L. Euler, contained in a ſimilar memoir of his in the fifth volume of the New Peterſburgh Commentaries, adding and intermix⯑ing here and there other remarks and obſervations of my own.
2. By a converging ſeries, I mean ſuch a one whoſe terms continually decreaſe; and by a diverging ſeries, that whoſe terms continually in⯑creaſe. So that a ſeries whoſe terms neither increaſe nor decreaſe, but are all equal, as they neither converge nor diverge, may be called a neutral ſeries, as a − a + a − a + &c. Now converging ſeries, being ſuppoſed infinitely continued, may have their terms decreaſing to o as a limit, as the ſeries 1 − ½ + ⅓ − ¼ + &c. or only decreaſing to ſome finite magnitude as a limit, as the ſeries 2/1 − 3/2 + 4/3 − 5/4 + &c. which tends continually to 1 as a limit. So in like manner, diverging ſeries may have their terms tending to a limit that is either finite or infinitely great; thus the terms 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + &c. diverge to infinity, but the diverging terms ½ − ⅔ + ¾ − ⅘ + &c. only to the finite magnitude 1. Hence then, as the ultimate terms of ſeries which do not converge to o, by ſuppoſing them continued in infinitum, may be either finite or infinite, there will be two kinds of ſuch ſeries, each of which will be farther divided into two ſpecies, according as the terms ſhall either be all affected with the ſame ſign, or have alternately the ſigns + and −. We ſhall, therefore, have altogether four ſpecies of ſeries which do not converge to o, an example of each of which may be as here follows: [3]
3. Now concerning the ſums of theſe ſpecies of ſeries, there have been great diſſenſions among mathematicians; ſome affirming that they can be expreſſed by a certain ſum, while others deny it. In the firſt place, however, it is evident that the ſums of ſuch ſeries as come under the firſt of theſe ſpecies, will be really infinitely great, ſince by actually collecting the terms, we can arrive at a ſum greater than any propoſed number whatever: and hence there can be no doubt but that the ſums of this ſpecies of ſeries may be exhibited by expreſſions of this kind a/0. It is concerning the other ſpecies, therefore, that mathe⯑maticians have chiefly differed; and the arguments which both ſides allege in defence of their opinions, have been endued with ſuch force, that neither party could hitherto be brought to yield to the other.
4. As to the ſecond ſpecies, the famous Leibnitz was one of the firſt who treated of this ſeries 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + &c. and he concluded the ſum of it to = ½, relying upon the following cogent reaſons. And firſt, that this ſeries ariſes by reſolving the fraction 1/1+a into the ſeries 1 − a + a2 − a3 + a4 − a5 + &c. by continual diviſion in the uſual way, and taking the value of a equal to unity. Secondly, for more confirmation, and for perſuading ſuch as are not accuſtomed to cal⯑culations, he reaſons in the following manner: If the ſeries terminate any where, and if the number of the terms be even, then its value will be = 0; [4]but if the number of terms be odd, the value of the ſeries will be = 1: but becauſe the ſeries proceeds in infinitum, and that the number of the terms cannot be reckoned either odd or even, we may conclude that the ſum is neither = 0, nor = 1, but that it muſt obtain a certain middle value, equidifferent from both, and which is therefore = ½. And thus, he adds, nature adheres to the univerſal law of juſtice, giving no partial preference to either ſide.
5. Againſt theſe arguments the adverſe party make uſe of ſuch objec⯑tions as the following. Firſt, that the fraction 1/1+a is not equal to the infinite ſeries 1 − a + a2 − a3 + &c. unleſs a be a fraction leſs than unity. For if the diviſion be any where broken off, and the quotient of the remainder be added, the cauſe of the paralogiſm will be mani⯑feſt; for we ſhall then have [...]; and that although the number n ſhould be made infi⯑nite, yet the ſupplemental fraction [...] ought not to be omitted, unleſs it ſhould become evaneſcent, which happens only in thoſe caſes in which a is leſs than 1, and the terms of the ſeries converge to 0. But that in other caſes there ought always to be included this kind of ſupplement [...]; and although it be affected with the dubious ſign [...], namely − or + according as n ſhall be an even or an odd number, yet if n be infinite, it may not therefore be omitted, under the pretence that an infinite number is neither odd nor even, and that there is no reaſon why the one ſign ſhould be uſed rather than the other; for it is abſurd to ſuppoſe that there can be any integer number, even although it be infinite, which is neither odd nor even.
6. But this objection is rejected by thoſe who attribute determinate ſums to diverging ſeries, becauſe it conſiders an infinite number as a determinate number, and therefore either odd or even, when it is really [5]indeterminate. For that it is contrary to the very idea of a ſeries, ſaid to proceed in infinitum, to conceive any term of it as the laſt, although infinite: and that therefore the objection above-mentioned, of the ſupplement to be added or ſubtracted, naturally falls of itſelf. Therefore, ſince an infinite ſeries never terminates, we never can arrive at the place where that ſupplement muſt be joined; and therefore that the ſupplement not only may, but indeed ought to be neglected, becauſe there is no place found for it.
And theſe arguments, adduced either for or againſt the ſums of ſuch ſeries as above, hold alſo in the fourth ſpecies, which is not otherwiſe embarraſſed with any further doubts peculiar to itſelf.
7. But thoſe who diſpute againſt the ſums of ſuch ſeries, think they have the firmeſt hold in the third ſpecies. For although the terms of theſe ſeries continually increaſe, and that, by actually collect⯑ing the terms, we can arrive at a ſum greater than any aſſignable num⯑ber, which is the very definition of infinity; yet the patrons of the ſums are forced to admit, in this ſpecies, ſeries whoſe ſums are not only finite, but even negative, or leſs than nothing. For ſince the fraction 1/1−a•, by evolving it by diviſion, becomes 1 + a + a2 + a3 + a4 + &c. we ſhould have
which their adverſaries, not undeſervedly, hold to be abſurd, ſince by the addition of affirmative numbers, we can never obtain a negative ſum; and hence they urge that there is the greater neceſſity for includ⯑ing the before-mentioned ſupplement additive, ſince by taking it in, it is evident that − 1 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 ........ 2n + 2n+1/1−2, although n ſhould be an infinite number.
[6]8. The defenders therefore of the ſums of ſuch ſeries, in order to reconcile this ſtriking paradox, more ſubtle perhaps than true, make a diſtinction between negative quantities; for they argue that while ſome are leſs than nothing, there are others greater than infinite, or above infinity. Namely, that the one value of −1 ought to be underſtood, when it is conceived to ariſe from the ſubtraction of a greater number a + 1 from a leſs a; but the other value, when it is found equal to the ſeries 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + &c. and ariſing from the diviſion of the number 1 by −1; for that in the former caſe it is leſs than nothing, but in the latter greater than infinite. For the more confirmation, they bring this example of fractions ¼, ⅓, ½, 1/1, 1/0, 1/−1, 1/−2, 1/−3, &c. which, evidently increaſing in the leading terms, it is inferred will con⯑tinually increaſe; and hence they conclude that 1/−1 is greater than 1/0, and 1/−2 greater than 1/−1, and ſo on: and therefore as 1/−1 is expreſſed by −1, and 1/0 by ∼ or infinity, −1 will be greater than ∼, and much more will −½ be greater than ∼. And thus they ingeniouſly enough repel⯑led that apparent abſurdity by itſelf.
9. But although this diſtinction ſeemed to be ingeniouſly deviſed, it gave but little ſatisfaction to the adverſaries; and beſides, it ſeemed to affect the truth of the rules of algebra. For if the two values of −1, namely 1 − 2 and 1/−1, be really different from each other, as we may not confound them, the certainty and the uſe of the rules, which we follow in making calculations, would be quite done away; which would be a greater abſurdity than that for whoſe ſake the diſtinction was deviſed: but if 1 − 2 = 1/−1, as the rules of algebra require, for by multiplication [...], the matter in debate is not ſettled; ſince the quantity −1, to which the ſeries 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + &c. is made equal, is leſs than nothing, and therefore the ſame difficulty ſtill remains. In the mean time however, it ſeems but agreeable to truth, to ſay that the ſame quantities which are below nothing, may be [7]taken as above infinite. For we know, not only from algebra, but from geometry alſo, that there are two ways, by which quantities paſs from poſitive to negative, the one through the cypher or nothing, and the other through infinity: and beſides that quantities, either by in⯑creaſing or decreaſing from the cypher, return again, and revert to the ſame term o; ſo that quantities more than infinite are the ſame with quantities leſs than nothing, like as quantities leſs than infinite agree with quantities greater than nothing.
10. But, farther, thoſe who deny the truth of the ſums that have been aſſigned to diverging ſeries, not only omit to aſſign other values for the ſums, but even ſet themſelves utterly to oppoſe all ſums belong⯑ing to ſuch ſeries, as things merely imaginary. For a converging ſeries, as ſuppoſe this 1 + ½ + ¼ + ⅛ + &c. will admit of a ſum = 2, becauſe the more terms of this ſeries we actually add, the nearer we come to the number 2: but in diverging ſeries the caſe is quite different; for the more terms we add, the more do the ſums which are produced differ from one another, neither do they ever tend to any certain deter⯑minate value. Hence they conclude that no idea of a ſum can be applied to diverging ſeries, and that the labour of thoſe perſons who employ themſelves in inveſtigating the ſums of ſuch ſeries, is manifeſtly uſeleſs, and indeed contrary to the very principles of analyſis.
11. But notwithſtanding this ſeemingly real difference, yet neither party could ever convict the other of any error, whenever the uſe of ſeries of this kind has occurred in analyſis; and for this good reaſon, that neither party is in an error, but that the whole difference conſiſts in words only. For if in any calculation I arrive at this ſeries 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + &c. and that I ſubſtitute ½ inſtead of it; I ſhall ſurely not thereby commit any error; which however I ſhould certainly incur if I ſubſtitute any other number inſtead of that ſeries; and hence there remains no doubt but that the ſeries 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + &c. and the [8]fraction ½, are equivalent quantities, and that the one may always be ſubſtituted inſtead of the other without error. So that the whole mat⯑ter in diſpute ſeems to be reduced to this only, namely, whether the fraction ½ can be properly called the ſum of the ſeries 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + &c. Now if any perſons ſhould obſtinately deny this, ſince they will not however venture to deny the fraction to be equivalent to the ſeries, it is greatly to be feared they will fall into mere quarrelling about words.
12. But perhaps the whole diſpute will eaſily be compromiſed, by carefully attending to what follows. Whenever, in analyſis, we arrive at a complex function or expreſſion, either fractional or tranſcendental; it is uſual to convert it into a convenient ſeries, to which the remaining calculus may be more eaſily applied. And hence the occaſion and riſe of infinite ſeries. So far only then do infinite ſeries take place in analytics, as they ariſe from the evolution of ſome finite expreſſion; and therefore, inſtead of an infinite ſeries, in any calculus, we may ſubſtitute that formula, from whoſe evolution it aroſe. And hence, for performing calculations with more eaſe or more benefit, like as rules are uſually given for converting into infinite ſeries ſuch finite expreſſions as are endued with leſs proper forms; ſo, on the other hand, thoſe rules are to be eſteemed not leſs uſeful by the help of which we may inveſti⯑gate the finite expreſſion from which a propoſed infinite ſeries would reſult, if that finite expreſſion ſhould be evolved by the proper rules: and ſince this expreſſion may always, without error, be ſubſtituted in⯑ſtead of the infinite ſeries, they muſt neceſſarily be of the ſame value: and hence no infinite ſeries can be propoſed, but a finite expreſſion may, at the ſame time, be conceived as equivalent to it.
13. If therefore, we only ſo far change the received notion of a ſum as to ſay, that the ſum of any ſeries, is the finite expreſſion by the evolution of which that ſeries may be produced, all the difficulties, [9]which have been agitated on both ſides, vaniſh of themſelves. For, firſt, that expreſſion by whoſe evolution a converging ſeries is produced, exhibits at the ſame time its ſum, in the common acceptation of the term: neither, if the ſeries ſhould be divergent, could the inveſtiga⯑tion be deemed at all more abſurd, or leſs proper, namely, the ſearch⯑ing out a finite expreſſion which, being evolved according to the rules of algebra, ſhall produce that ſeries. And ſince that expreſſion may be ſubſtituted in the calculation inſtead of this ſeries, there can be no doubt but that it is equal to it. Which being the caſe, we need not neceſſarily deviate from the uſual mode of ſpeaking, but might be per⯑mitted to call that expreſſion alſo the ſum, which is equal to any ſeries whatever, provided however, that, in ſeries whoſe terms do not con⯑verge to o, we do not connect that notion with this idea of a ſum, namely, that the more terms of the ſeries are actually collected, the nearer we muſt approach to the value of the ſum.
14. But if any perſon ſhall ſtill think it improper to apply the term ſum, to the finite expreſſions by whoſe evolution all ſeries in general are produced; it will make no difference in the nature of the thing; and inſtead of the word ſum, for ſuch finite expreſſion, he may uſe the term value; or perhaps the term radix would be as proper as any other that could be employed for this purpoſe, as the ſeries may juſtly be conſidered as iſſuing or growing out of it, like as a plant ſprings from its root, or from its ſeed. The choice of terms being in a great mea⯑ſure arbitrary, every perſon is at liberty to employ them in whatever ſenſe he may think fit, or proper for the purpoſe in hand; provided always that he fix and determine the ſenſe in which he underſtands or employs them. And as I conſider any ſeries, and the finite expreſſion by whoſe evolution that ſeries may be produced, as no more than two different ways of expreſſing one and the ſame thing, whether that finite expreſſion be called the ſum, or value, or radix of the ſeries; ſo in the following paper, and in ſome others which may perhaps hereafter [10]be produced, it is in this ſenſe I deſire to be underſtood when ſearching out the value of ſeries, namely, that the object of my enquiry, is the radix by whoſe evolution the ſeries may be produced, or elſe an ap⯑proximation to the value of it in decimal numbers, &c.
Royal Military Acad. Woolwich, May 24, 1785.
Article 1. THE remarkable difference between the facility which mathematicians have found in their endeavours to determine the values of infinite ſeries whoſe terms are alternately affirmative and negative, and the difficulty of doing the ſame thing with reſpect to thoſe ſeries whoſe terms are all affirmative, is one of thoſe ſtriking appearances in ſcience which we can hardly perſuade our⯑ſelves is true, even after we have ſeen many proofs of it, and which ſerve to put us ever after on our guard not to truſt to our firſt notions, or conjectures, on theſe ſubjects, till we have brought them to the teſt of demonſtration. For, at firſt ſight it is very natural to imagine, that thoſe infinite ſeries whoſe terms are all affirmative, or added to the firſt term, muſt be much ſimpler in their nature, and much eaſier to be ſummed, than thoſe whoſe terms are alternately affirmative and ne⯑gative; which, nevertheleſs, we find, upon examination, to be directly contrary to the truth; the methods of finding the ſums of the latter ſeries being numerous and eaſy, and alſo very general, whereas thoſe that have been hitherto diſcovered for the ſummation of the former ſeries, are few and difficult, and confined to ſeries whoſe terms are generated from each other according to ſome particular laws, inſtead of extending, as the other methods do, to all ſorts of ſeries, whoſe terms are connected together by addition, by whatever law their terms are formed. Of this remarkable difference between theſe two ſorts of ſeries, the new method of finding the ſums of thoſe whoſe terms are [12]alternately poſitive and negative, which is the ſubject of the preſent paper, will afford us a ſtriking inſtance, as it poſſeſſes the happy qua⯑lities of ſimplicity, eaſe, perſpicuity, and univerſality in a great degree; and yet, as the eſſence of it conſiſts in the alternation of the ſigns + and −, by which the terms are connected with the firſt term, it is of no uſe in the ſummation of thoſe other ſeries whoſe terms are all con⯑nected with each other by the ſign +.
2. This method, ſo eaſy and general, is, in ſhort, ſimply this: be⯑ginning at the firſt term a of the ſeries a − b + c − d + e − f + &c. which is to be ſummed, compute ſeveral ſucceſſive values of it, by taking in ſucceſſively more and more terms, one term being taken in at a time; ſo that the firſt value of the ſeries ſhall be its firſt term a, (or even o or nothing may begin the ſeries of ſums); the next value ſhall be its firſt two terms a − b, reduced to one number; its next value ſhall be the firſt three terms a − b + c, reduced to one number; its next value ſhall be the firſt four terms a − b + c − d, reduced alſo to one number; and ſo on. This, it is evident, may be done by means of the eaſy arithmetical operation of addition and ſubtraction. And then, having found a ſufficient number of ſucceſſive values of the ſeries, more or leſs as the caſe may require, interpoſe between theſe values a ſet of arithmetical mean quantities or proportionals; and between theſe arithmetical means interpoſe a ſecond ſet of arithmetical mean quanti⯑ties; and between thoſe arithmetical means of the ſecond ſet, inter⯑poſe a third ſet of arithmetical mean quantities; and ſo on as far as you pleaſe. By this proceſs we ſoon find either the true value of the ſeries propoſed, when it has a determinate rational value, or otherwiſe we obtain ſeveral ſets of values approximating nearer and nearer to the ſum of the ſeries, both in the columns and in the lines, either horizon⯑tal or obliquely deſcending or aſcending; namely, both of the ſeveral ſets of means themſelves, and the ſets or ſeries formed of any of their correſponding terms, as of all their firſt terms, of their ſecond terms, [13]of their third terms, &c. or of their laſt terms, of their penultimate terms, of their antepenultimate terms, &c. and if between any of theſe latter ſets, conſiſting of the like or correſponding terms of the former ſets of arithmetical means, we again interpoſe new ſets of arithmetical means, as we did at firſt with the ſucceſſive ſums, we ſhall obtain other ſets of approximating terms, having the ſame properties as the former. And thus we may repeat the proceſs as often as we pleaſe, which will be found very uſeful in the more difficult diverging ſeries, as we ſhall ſee hereafter. For this method, being derived only from the circum⯑ſtance of the alternation of the ſigns of the terms (+ and −), it is there⯑fore not confined to converging ſeries alone, but is equally applicable both to diverging ſeries, and to neutral ſeries, (by which laſt name I ſhall take the liberty to diſtinguiſh thoſe ſeries whoſe terms are all of the ſame conſtant magnitude); namely, the application is equally the ſame for all the three following ſorts of ſeries, viz.
As is demonſtrated in what follows, and exemplified in a variety of inſtances.
It muſt be noted, however, that by the value of the ſeries, I always mean ſuch radix, or finite expreſſion, as, by evolution, would produce the ſeries in queſtion; according to the ſenſe I have ſtated in the former paper, on this ſubject; or an approximate value of ſuch radix; and which radix, as it may be ſubſtituted inſtead of the ſeries in any operation, I call the value of the ſeries.
3. It is an obvious and well-known property of infinite ſeries, with alternate ſigns, that when we ſeek their value by collecting their terms one after another, we obtain a ſeries of ſucceſſive ſums, which approach continually nearer and nearer to the true value of the propoſed ſeries, when it is a converging one, or one whoſe terms always decreaſe [14]by ſome regular law; but in a diverging ſeries, or one whoſe terms as continually increaſe, thoſe ſucceſſive ſums diverge always more and more from the true value of the ſeries. And from the circumſtance of the alternate change of the ſigns, it is alſo a property of thoſe ſuc⯑ceſſive ſums, that when the laſt term which is included in the collection, is a poſitive one, then the ſum obtained is too great, or exceeds the truth; but when the laſt collected term is negative, then the ſum is too little, or below the truth. So that, in both the converging and diverging ſeries, the firſt term alone, being poſitive, exceeds the truth; the ſecond ſum, or the ſum of the firſt two terms, is below the truth; the third ſum, or the ſum of three terms, is above the truth; the fourth ſum, or the ſum of four terms, is below the truth; and ſo on; the ſum of any even number of terms being below the true value of the ſeries, and the ſum of any odd number, above it. All which is generally known, and evident from the nature and form of the ſeries. So, of the ſeries a − b + c − d + e − f + &c. the firſt ſum a is too great; the ſecond ſum a − b too little; the third ſum a − b + c too great; and ſo on as in the following table, where s is the true value of the ſeries, and o is placed before the collected ſums, to compleat the ſeries, being the value when no terms are included:
| Succeſſive ſums. | |
| s is greater than | o |
| s is leſs than | a |
| s is greater than | a − b |
| s is leſs than | a − b + c |
| s is greater than | a − b + c − d |
| s is leſs than | a − b + c − d + e |
| &c. | &c. |
4. Hence the value of every alternate ſeries s, is poſitive, and leſs than the firſt term a, the ſeries being always ſuppoſed to begin with a poſitive term a; and conſequently if the ſigns of all the terms be [15]changed, or if the ſeries begin with a negative term, the value s will ſtill be the ſame, but negative, or the ſign of the ſum will be changed, and the value become −s = −a + b − c + d − &c. Alſo, becauſe the ſucceſſive ſums, in a converging ſeries, always ap⯑proach nearer and nearer to the true value, while they recede always farther and farther from it in a diverging ſeries; it follows that, in a neutral ſeries, a − a + a − a + &c. which holds a middle place between the two former, the ſucceſſive ſums o, a, o, a, o, a &c. will neither converge nor diverge, but will be always at the ſame diſ⯑tance from the value of the propoſed ſeries a − a + a − a + &c. and conſequently that value will always be = ½a, which holds every where the middle place between o and a.
5. Now, with reſpect to a converging ſeries, a − b + c − d + &c. becauſe o is below, and a above s the value of the ſeries, but a nearer than o to the value s, it follows that s lies between a and ½a, and that ½a is leſs than s, and ſo nearer to s than o is. In like manner, be⯑cauſe a is above, and a − b below the value s, but a − b nearer to that value than a is, it follows that s lies between a and a − b, and that the arithmetical mean a − ½b is ſomething above the value of s, but nearer to that value than a is. And thus, the ſame reaſoning holding in every following pair of ſucceſſive ſums, the arithmetical means between them will form another ſeries of terms, which are, like thoſe ſums, alternately leſs and greater than the value of the pro⯑poſed ſeries, but approximating nearer to that value than the ſeveral ſucceſſive ſums do, as every term of thoſe means is nearer to the value s than the correſponding preceding term in the ſums is. And like as the ſucceſſive ſums form a progreſſion approaching always nearer and nearer to the value of the ſeries, ſo in like manner their arithmetical means form another progreſſion coming nearer and nearer to the ſame value, and each term of the progreſſion of means nearer than each term of the ſucceſſive ſums. Hence then we have the two following [16]ſeries, namely, of ſucceſſive ſums and their arithmetical means, in which each ſtep approaches nearer to the value of s than the former, the latter progreſſion being however nearer than the former, and the terms or ſteps of each alternately below and above the value s of the ſeries a − b + c − d + &c.
| Succeſſive ſums | Arithmetical means |
| › O | › ½a |
| ‹ a | ‹ a − ½b |
| › a − b | › a − b + ½c |
| ‹ a − b + c | ‹ a − b + c − ½d |
| › a − b + c − d | › a − b + c − d + ½e |
| ‹ a − b + c − d + e | ‹ a − b + c − d + e − ½f |
| &c. | &c. |
where the mark ›, placed before any ſtep, ſignifies that it is too little, or below the value s of the converging ſeries a − b + c − d + &c. and the mark ‹ ſignifies the contrary, or too great. And hence ½a, or half the firſt term of ſuch a converging ſeries, is leſs than s the value of the ſeries.
6. And ſince theſe two progreſſions poſſeſs the ſame properties, but only the terms of the latter nearer to the truth than the former; for the very ſame reaſons as before, the means between the terms of theſe firſt arithmetical means, will form a third progreſſion, whoſe terms will approach ſtill nearer to the value of s than the ſecond progreſſion, or the firſt means; and the means of theſe ſecond means will approach nearer than the ſaid ſecond means do; and ſo on continually, every ſucceeding order of arithmetical means, approaching nearer to the value of s than the former. So that the following columns of ſums and means will be each nearer to the value of s than the former, viz. [17]
| Suc. ſums. | 1ſt means. | 2d means. | 3d means. | 4th means. | |
| › | 0 | a/2 | 3a−b/4 | 7a−4b+c/8 | 15a−11b+cc−d/16 |
| ‹ | a | a − b/2 | a − 3b−c/4 | a − 7b−4c+d/8 | a − 15b−11c+5d−e/8 |
| › | a−b | a − b + c/2 | a − b + 3c−d/4 | a − b + 7c−4d+e/8 | a − b + 15c−11d+5e−f/8 |
| ‹ | a − b + c | a − b + c − d/2 | a − b + c − 3d−c/4 | a − b + c − &c. | a−b+ &c. |
| › | a−b+c−d | a−b+&c. | a−b+&c. | a−b+&c. | a−b+ &c. |
Where every column conſiſts of a ſet of quantities, approaching ſtill nearer and nearer to the value of s, the terms of each column being alternately below and above that value, and each ſucceeding column approaching nearer than the preceding one. Alſo every line, formed of all the firſt terms, all the ſecond terms, all the third terms, &c. of the columns, forms alſo a progreſſion whoſe terms continually approximate to the value of s, and each line nearer or quicker than the former; but differing from the columns, or vertical progreſſions, in this, namely, that whereas the terms in the columns are alternately below and above the value of s, thoſe in each line are all on one ſide of the value s, namely, either all below or all above it; and the lines alternately too little and too great, namely all the expreſſions in the firſt line too little, all thoſe in the ſecond line too great, thoſe in the third line too little, and ſo on, every odd line being too little, and every even line too great.
7. Hence the expreſſions 0, a/2, 3a−b/4, 7a−4b+c/8, 15a−11b+5c−a/16, 31a−26b+16c−6d+e/32, &c. are continual approximations to the value s of the converging ſeries a − b + c − d + e − &c. and are all below the truth. But we can eaſily expreſs all theſe ſeveral theorems by one general formula. For, ſince it is evident by the conſtruction, that whilſt the denominator in any one of them is ſome power (2n) of 2 or 1 + 1, the numeral coefficients [18]of a, b, c, &c. the terms in the numerator, are found by ſubtracting all the terms except the laſt term, one after another, from the ſaid power 2n or [...] which is = 1 + n + n · n−1/2 + n · n−2/3 + &c. namely the coefficient of a equal to all the terms 2n minus the firſt term 1; that of b equal to all except the firſt two terms 1 + n; that of c equal to all except the firſt three; and ſo on, till the coeffi⯑cient of the laſt term be = 1 the laſt term of the power; it follows that the general expreſſion for the ſeveral theorems, or the general ap⯑proximate value of the converging ſeries a − b + c − d + &c. will be [...] continued till the terms vaniſh and the ſeries break off, n being equal to o or any integer number. Or this general formula may be expreſſed by this ſeries, [...] where A, B, C, &c. denote the coefficients of the ſeveral preceding terms. And this expreſſion, which is always too little, is the nearer to the true value of the ſeries a − b + c − d + &c. as the number n is taken greater: always excepting however thoſe caſes in which the theorem is accurately true when n is ſome certain finite number. Alſo, with any value of n, the formula is nearer to the truth, as the terms a, b, c, &c. of the propoſed ſeries, are nearer to equality; ſo that the ſlower the propoſed ſeries converges, the more accurate is the formula, and the ſooner does it afford a near value of that ſeries: which is a very fa⯑vourable circumſtance, as it is in caſes of very ſlow convergency that approximating formulae are chiefly wanted. And, like as the formula approaches nearer to the truth as the terms of the ſeries approach to an equality, ſo when the terms become quite equal, as in a neutral ſeries, the formula becomes quite accurate, and always gives the ſame value ½a for s or the ſeries, whatever integer number be taken for n. And farther, when the propoſed ſeries, from being converging, paſſes through [19]neutrality, when its terms are equal, and becomes diverging, the for⯑mula will ſtill hold good, only it will then be alternately too great, and too little as long as the ſeries diverges, as we ſhall preſently ſhew more fully. So that in general the value s of the ſeries a − b + c − d + &c. whether it be converging, diverging, or neutral, is leſs than the firſt term a; when the ſeries converges, the value is above ½a; when it diverges, it is below ½a; and when neutral, it is equal to ½a.
8. Take now the ſeries of the firſt terms of the ſeveral orders of arithmetical means, which form the progreſſion of continual approxi⯑mating formulae, being each nearer to the value of the ſeries a − b + c − d + &c. than the former, and place them in a column one under another; then take the differences between every two adjacent formulae, and place in another column by the ſide of the former, as here below:
| Approx. Formulae. | Differences. |
| a/2 | a−b/4 |
| 3a−b/4 | a−2b+c/8 |
| 7a−4b+c/8 | a−3b+3c−d/16 |
| 15a−11b+5c−d/16 | a−4b+6c−4d+e/32 |
| 31a−26b+16c−6d+e/32 | |
| &c. | &c. |
From which it appears, that this ſeries of differences conſiſts of the very ſame quantities, which form the firſt terms of all the orders of differ⯑ences of the terms of the propoſed ſeries a − b + c − d + &c. when taken as uſual in the differential method. And becauſe the firſt of the above differences added to the firſt formula, gives the ſecond formula; and the ſecond difference added to the ſecond formula, gives the third formula; and ſo on; therefore the firſt formula with all the differences added, will give the laſt formula; conſequently our general formula [...] [20]which approaches to the value of the ſeries a − b + c − d + &c. is alſo equivalent to, or reduces to this form, [...] which, it is evident, agrees with the famous differential ſeries. And this coincidence might be ſufficient to eſtabliſh the truth of our method, though we had not given other more direct proof of it. Hence it ap⯑pears then, that our theorem is of the ſame degree of accuracy, or convergency, as the differential theorem; but admits of more direct and eaſy application, as the terms themſelves are uſed, without the pre⯑vious trouble of taking the ſeveral orders of differences. And our method will be rendered general for literal as well as numeral ſeries, by ſuppoſing a, b, c, &c. to repreſent, not barely the coefficients of the terms, but the whole terms, both the numeral and the literal part of them. However, as the chief uſe of my method is to obtain the nu⯑meral value of ſeries, when a literal ſeries is to be ſo ſummed, it is to be made numeral by ſubſtituting the numeral values of the letters in⯑ſtead of them. It is farther evident, that we might eaſily derive our method of arithmetical means from the above differential ſeries, by beginning with it, and receding back to our theorems, by a counter proceſs to that above given.
9. Having, in Art. 5, 6, 7, 8, compleated the inveſtigations for the firſt or converging form of ſeries, the firſt four articles being introduc⯑tory to both forms in common; we may now proceed to the diverging form of ſeries, for which we ſhall find the ſame method of arithmetical means, and the ſame general formula, as for the converging ſeries; as well as the mode of inveſtigation uſed in Art. 5 et ſeq. only changing ſometimes greater for leſs, or leſs for greater. Thus then, reaſoning from the table of ſucceſſive ſums in Art. 3, in which s is alternately above and below the expreſſions o, a, a − b, a − b + c, &c. be⯑cauſe o is below, and a above the value s of the ſeries a − b + c − d + &c. but o nearer than a to that value, it follows that s lies be⯑tween [21]o and ½a, and that ½a is greater than s, but nearer to s than a is. In like manner, becauſe a is above, and a − b below the value s, but a nearer to that value than a − b is, it follows that s lies between a and a − b, and that the arithmetical mean a − ½b is below s, but that it is nearer to s than a − b is. And thus, the ſame reaſoning holding in every pair of ſucceſſive ſums, the arithmetical means between them will form another ſeries of terms, which are alternately greater and leſs than s the value of the propoſed ſeries; but here greater and leſs in the con⯑trary way to what they were for the converging ſeries, namely, thoſe ſteps greater here which were leſs there, and leſs here which before were greater. And this firſt ſet of arithmetical means, will either con⯑verge to the value of s, or will at leaſt diverge leſs from it than the progreſſion of ſucceſſive ſums. Again, the ſame reaſoning ſtill hold⯑ing good, by taking the arithmetical means of thoſe firſt means, another ſet is found, which will either converge, or elſe diverge leſs than the former. And ſo on as far as we pleaſe, every new operation gradually checking the firſt or greateſt divergency, till a number of the firſt terms of a ſet converge ſufficiently faſt, to afford a near value of s the pro⯑poſed ſeries.
10. Or, by taking the firſt terms of all the orders of means, we find the ſame ſet of theorems, namely [...], &c. or in general, [...] which will be alternately above and below s the value of the ſeries, till the divergency is overcome. Then this ſeries, which conſiſts of the firſt terms of the ſeveral orders of means, may be treated as the ſucceſſive ſums, taking ſeveral orders of means of theſe again. After which the firſt terms of theſe laſt orders may be treated again in the ſame manner; and ſo on as far as we pleaſe. Or the ſeries of ſecond terms, or third terms, &c. or ſometimes, the terms aſcending ob⯑liquely, may be treated in the ſame manner to advantage. And [22]with a little practice and inſpection of the ſeveral ſeries, whether vertical, or horizontal, or oblique, (for they all tend to the detection of the ſame value s) we ſhall ſoon learn to diſtinguiſh whereabouts the required quantity s is, and which of the ſeries will ſooneſt approxi⯑mate to it.
11. To exemplify now this method, we ſhall take a few ſeries of both ſorts, and find their value ſometimes by actually going through the operations of taking the ſeveral orders of arithmetical means, and at other times by uſing ſome one of the theorems [...], &c. at once. And to render the uſe of theſe theorems ſtill eaſier, we ſhall here ſub⯑join the following table, where the firſt line conſiſting of the powers of 2, contains the denominators of the theorems in their order, and the figures in their perpendicular columns below them, are the coefficients of the ſeveral terms in the numerators of the theorems, namely, the upper figure, next below the power of 2, the coefficient of a; the next below, that of b; the third that of c, &c.
| 2 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 210 | 211 | 212 | 213 | 214 | 215 | 216 | 217 | 218 | 219 | 220 |
| 1 | 3 | 7 | 15 | 31 | 63 | 127 | 255 | 511 | 1023 | 2047 | 4095 | 8191 | 16383 | 32767 | 65535 | 131071 | 262143 | 524287 | 1048575 |
| 1 | 4 | 11 | 26 | 57 | 120 | 247 | 502 | 1013 | 2036 | 4083 | 8178 | 16369 | 32752 | 65519 | 131054 | 262125 | 524268 | 1048555 | |
| 1 | 5 | 16 | 42 | 99 | 219 | 466 | 968 | 1981 | 4017 | 8100 | 16278 | 32647 | 65399 | 130918 | 261972 | 524097 | 1048365 | ||
| 1 | 6 | 22 | 64 | 163 | 382 | 848 | 1816 | 3797 | 7814 | 15914 | 32192 | 64839 | 130238 | 261156 | 523128 | 1047225 | |||
| 1 | 7 | 29 | 93 | 256 | 638 | 1486 | 3302 | 7099 | 14913 | 30827 | 63019 | 127858 | 258096 | 519252 | 1042380 | ||||
| 1 | 8 | 37 | 130 | 386 | 1024 | 2510 | 5812 | 12911 | 27824 | 58651 | 121670 | 249528 | 507624 | 1026876 | |||||
| 1 | 9 | 40 | 176 | 562 | 1586 | 4096 | 9908 | 22819 | 50643 | 109294 | 230964 | 480492 | 988116 | ||||||
| 1 | 10 | 56 | 232 | 794 | 2380 | 6476 | 16384 | 39203 | 89846 | 199140 | 430104 | 910596 | |||||||
| 1 | 11 | 67 | 299 | 1093 | 3473 | 9949 | 26333 | 65536 | 155382 | 354522 | 784626 | ||||||||
| 1 | 12 | 79 | 378 | 1471 | 4944 | 14893 | 41226 | 106762 | 262144 | 616666 | |||||||||
| 1 | 13 | 92 | 470 | 1941 | 6885 | 21778 | 63004 | 169766 | 431910 | ||||||||||
| 1 | 14 | 106 | 576 | 2517 | 9402 | 31180 | 94184 | 263950 | |||||||||||
| 1 | 15 | 121 | 697 | 3214 | 12616 | 43796 | 137980 | ||||||||||||
| 1 | 16 | 137 | 834 | 4048 | 16664 | 60460 | |||||||||||||
| 1 | 17 | 154 | 988 | 5036 | 21700 | ||||||||||||||
| 1 | 18 | 172 | 1160 | 6196 | |||||||||||||||
| 1 | 19 | 191 | 1351 | ||||||||||||||||
| 1 | 20 | 211 | |||||||||||||||||
| 1 | 21 | ||||||||||||||||||
| 1 |
[23]The conſtruction and continuation of this table, is a buſineſs of little labour. For the numbers in the firſt horizontal line next below the line of the powers of 2, are thoſe powers diminiſhed each by unity. The numbers in the next horizontal line, are made from the numbers in the firſt, by ſubtracting from each the index of that power of 2 which ſtands above it. And for the reſt of the table, the formation of it is obvious from this principle, which reigns through the whole, that every number in it is the ſum of two others, namely of the next to it on the left in the ſame horizontal line, and the next above that in the ſame vertical column. So that the whole table is formed from a few of its initial numbers, by eaſy operations of addition.
In converging ſeries, it will be farther uſeful, firſt to collect a few of the initial terms into one ſum, and then apply our method to the fol⯑lowing terms, which will be ſooner valued becauſe they will converge ſlower.
12. For the firſt example, let us take the very ſlowly converging ſeries 1 − ½ + ⅓ − ¼ + ⅕ − ⅙ + &c. which is known to expreſs the hyp. log. of 2, which is = .69314718.
Here a = 1, b = ½, c = ⅓, d = ¼, &c. and the value, as found by theorem the 1ſt, 2d, 3d, 4th, 10th, and 20th, will be thus:
Where it is evident that every theorem gives always a nearer value than the former: the 10th theorem gives the value true to the 4th [24]figure, and the 20th theorem to the 8th figure. The operation for the 10th and 20th theorems, will be eaſily performed by dividing, mentally, the numbers in their reſpective columns in the table of coefficients in Art. 11, by the ordinate numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. placing the quotients of the alternate terms below each other, then adding each up, and dividing the difference of the ſums continually five or ten times ſucceſſively by the number 4: after the manner as here placed below, where the operation is ſet down for both of them.
1. For the 10th Theorem. [...]
2. For the 20th Theorem. [...]
Again, to perform the operation by taking the ſucceſſive ſums, and the arithmetical means: let the terms ½, ⅓, ¼, &c. be reduced to decimal numbers, by dividing the common numerator 1 by the deno⯑minators 2, 3, 4, &c. or rather by taking theſe out of the table at the end of my Miſcellanea Mathematica, publiſhed in 1775, which con⯑tains a table of the ſquare roots and reciprocals of all the numbers, [25]1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. to 1000, and which is of great uſe in ſuch calculations as theſe. Then the operation will ſtand thus: [...] Here, after collecting the firſt twelve terms, I begin at the bottom, and, aſcending upwards, take a very few arithmetical means between the ſucceſſive ſums, placing them on the right of them: it being unne⯑ceſſary to take the means of the whole, as any part of them will do the buſineſs, but the lower ones in a converging ſeries beſt, becauſe they are nearer the value ſought, and approach ſooner to it. I then take the means of the firſt means, and the means of theſe again, and ſo on, till the value is obtained as near as may be neceſſary. In this proceſs we ſoon diſtinguiſh whereabouts the value lies, the limits or means, which are alternately above and below it, gradually contracting, and approaching towards each other. And when the means are reduced to a ſingle one, and it is found neceſſary to get the value more exactly, I then go back to the columns of ſucceſſive ſums, and find another firſt mean, either next below or above thoſe before found, and continue it through the 2d, 3d, &c. means, which makes now a duplicate in the laſt column of means, and the mean between them gives another ſingle mean of the next order; and ſo on as far as we ſee it neceſſary. By ſuch a gradual progreſs we uſe no more terms nor labour than is quite requiſite for the degree of accuracy required.
Or, after having collected the ſum of any number of terms, we may apply any of the formulae to the following terms. So, having as above [26]found .653211 for the ſum of the firſt 12 terms, and calling the next or 13th term .076923 = a, the 14th term .0714285 = b, the next, .06666 &c. = c, and ſo on: then the 2d theorem 3a−b/4 gives .039835, which added to .653211 the ſum of the firſt 12 terms, gives .693046, the value of the ſeries true in three places of figures; and the 3d theorem [...] gives .039927 for the following terms, and which added to .653211 the ſum of the firſt 12 terms, gives .693138, the value of the ſeries true in five places. And ſo on.
13. For a ſecond example, let us take the ſlowly converging ſeries 2/1 − 3/2 + 4/3 − 5/4 + 6/5 − 7/6 + &c. which is = ½ + hyp. log. of 2 = 1.19314718. Then [...]
Here, after the 3d column of means, the firſt four figures 1.193, which are common, are omitted, to ſave room and the trouble of writing them ſo often down; and in the laſt three columns, the proceſs is repeated with the laſt three figures of each number; and the laſt of theſe 147, joined to the firſt four, give 1.193147 for the value of the ſeries propoſed. And the ſame value is alſo obtained by the theorems uſed as in the former example.
14. For the third example let us take the converging ſeries 1 − ⅓ + ⅕ − 1/7 + 1/9 − 1/11 + &c. which is = .7853981 &c. or ¼ of the circumference of the circle whoſe diameter is 1. Here a = 1, b = ⅓, [27] c = ⅕, &c. then turning the terms into decimals, and proceeding with the ſucceſſive ſums and means as before, we obtain the 5th mean true within a unit in the 6th place as here below: [...]
15. To find the value of the converging ſeries [...] which occurs in the expreſſion for determining the time of a body's deſcent down the arc of a circle:
The firſt terms of this ſeries I find ready computed by Mr. Baron Maſeres, pa. 219 Philoſ. Tranſ. 1777; theſe being arranged under one another, and the ſums collected, &c. as before, give .834625 for the value of that ſeries, being only 1 too little in the laſt figure.
[...]
16. To find the value of 1 − ¼ + ½ − 1/16 + 1/25 − &c. con⯑ſiſting of the reciprocals of the natural ſeries of ſquare numbers. [28] [...] The laſt mean .822467 is true in the laſt figure, the more accurate value of the ſeries 1 − ¼ + 1/9 − 1/16 + &c. being .8224670 &c.
17. Let the diverging ſeries ½ − ⅔ + ¾ − ⅘ + &c. be propoſed; where the terms are the reciprocals of thoſe in Art. 13.
[...]
Here the ſucceſſive ſums are alternately + and −, as well as the terms themſelves of the propoſed ſeries, but all the arithmetical means are poſitive. The numbers in each column of means are alter⯑nately too great and too little, but ſo as viſibly to approach towards each other. The ſame mutual approximation is viſible in all the oblique lines from left to right, ſo that there is a general and mutual tendency, in all the columns, and in all the lines, to the limit of the value of the ſeries. But with this difference, that all the numbers in any line de⯑ſcending obliquely from left to right, are on one ſide of the limit, and [29]thoſe in the next line in the ſame direction, all on the other ſide, the one line having its numbers all too great, while thoſe in the next line are all too little; but, on the contrary, the lines which aſcend from below obliquely towards the right, have their numbers alternately too great and too little, after the manner of thoſe in the columns, but ap⯑proximating quicker than thoſe in the columns. So that, after having continued the columns of arithmetical means to any convenient extent, we may then ſelect the terms in the laſt, or any other line obliquely aſcending from left to right, or rather beginning with the laſt found mean on the right, and deſcending towards the left; then arrange thoſe terms below one another in a column, and take their continual arithme⯑tical means, like as was done with the firſt ſucceſſive ſums, to ſuch extent as the caſe may require. And if neither theſe new columns, nor the oblique lines approach near enough to each other, a new ſet may be formed from one of their oblique lines which has its terms alternately too great and too little. And thus we may proceed as far as we pleaſe. Theſe repetitions will be more neceſſary in treating ſeries which diverge more; and having here once for all deſcribed the properties attending the ſeries, with the method of repetition, we ſhall only have to refer to them as occaſion ſhall offer. In the preſent inſtance, the laſt two or three means vary or differ ſo little, that the limit may be concluded to lie nearly in the middle between them, and therefore the mean between the two laſt 144 and 150, namely 147, may be concluded to be very near the truth, in the laſt three figures; for as to the firſt three figures 193, I dropt the repetition of them after the firſt three columns of means, both to ſave ſpace, and the trouble of writing them ſo often over again. So that the value of the ſeries in queſtion may be concluded to be .193147 very nearly, which is = − ½ + the hyp. log. of 2; or 1 leſs than its reciprocal ſeries in Art. 13.
18. Take the diverging ſeries 5/4 − 5·7/4·6 + 5·7·9/4·6·8 − 5·7·9·11/4·6·8·10 + &c. Here, firſt uſing ſome of the formulae, we have by the
Or, thus, taking the ſeveral orders of means, &c.
[...]
Here the ſucceſſive ſums are alternately + and −, but the arithme⯑tical means are all +. After the ſecond column of means, the firſt two figures 56 are omitted, being common; and in the laſt three columns the firſt three figures 569, which are common, are omitted. Towards the end, all the numbers, both oblique and vertical, approach ſo near together, that we may conclude that the laſt three figures 035 are all true; and theſe being joined to the firſt three 569, we have .569035 for the value of the ſeries, which is otherwiſe found 2+√2/6 = .56903559 &c.
19. Let us take the diverging ſeries 22/1 − 32/2 + 42/3 − 52/4 + &c. or 4/1 − 9/2 + 16/3 − 25/4 + &c. or 4 − 4½ + 5⅓ − 6¼ + 7⅕ − 8⅙ + &c.
[31] [...]
After the ſecond column of means, the firſt four figures 1.943 are omitted, being common to all the following columns; to theſe annexing the laſt three figures 147 of the laſt mean, we have 1.943147 for the ſum of the ſeries, which we otherwiſe know is equal to 5/4 + hyp. log. of 2. See Simp. Diſſert. Ex. 2. p. 75 and 76.
And the ſame value might be obtained by means of the formulae, uſing them as before.
20. Taking the diverging ſeries 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − &c. the method of means gives us, [...]
Where the ſecond, and every ſucceeding column of means, gives ¼ for the value of the ſeries propoſed.
In like manner, uſing the theorems, the firſt gives ½, but the ſecond, third, fourth, &c. give each of them the ſame value ¼; thus:
[32]21. Taking the ſeries 1 − 4 + 9 − 16 + 25 − 36 + &c. whoſe terms conſiſt of the ſquares of the natural ſeries of numbers, we have, by the arithmetical means, [...]
Where it is only in the ſecond column of means that the divergency is counteracted; after that the third and all the other orders of means give o for the value of the ſeries 1 − 4 + 9 − 16 + &c.
The ſame thing takes place on uſing the formulae, for
where the third and all after it give the ſame value 0.
22. Taking the geometrical ſeries of terms 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + &c. then [...]
[33]Here the lower parts of all the columns of means, from the cipher 0 downwards, conſiſt of the ſame ſeries of terms + 1 − 1 + 3 − 5 + 11 − 21 + 43 − 85 + &c. and the other part of the columns, from the cipher upwards, as well as each line of oblique means, parallel to, and above the line of ciphers, forms a ſeries of terms ½, ¼, ⅜, 5/16.....⅓ · 2n ± 1/2n, alternately above and below the value of the ſeries, ⅓, and approaching continually nearer and nearer to it, and which, when infinitely continued, or when n is infinite, the term becomes ⅓ for the value of the geometrical ſeries, 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − &c.
And the ſame ſet of terms would be given by each of the formulae.
23. Take the geometrical ſeries 1 − 3 + 9 − 27 + 81 − &c. Then [...] Here the column of ſucceſſive ſums, and every ſecond column of the arithmetical means, below the o, conſiſts of the ſame ſeries of terms 1, − 2, + 7, − 20, + &c. whilſt all the other columns of means conſiſt of this other ſet of terms ½, − ½, + 2½, − 6½, + &c. alſo the firſt oblique line of means, ½, 0, ½, 0, ½, 0, &c. conſiſts of the terms ½ and 0 alternately, which are all at equal diſtance from the value of the ſeries propoſed 1 − 3 + 9 − 27 + 81 − &c. as indeed are the terms of all the other oblique deſcending lines. And the mean between every two terms gives ¼ for that value. And the ſame terms would be given by the formulae, namely alternately ½ and 0.
And thus the value of any geometrical ſeries, whoſe ratio or ſecond term is r, will be found to be = 1/1+r.
[34]24. Finally, let there be taken the hypergeometrical ſeries 1 − 1 + 2 − 6 + 24 − 120 + &c. = 1 − 1 A + 2 B − 3 C + 4 D − 5 E + &c. which difficult ſeries has been honoured by a very conſiderable memoir written upon the valuation of it by the late famous L. Euler, in the New Peterſburg Commentaries, vol. v. where the value of it is at length determined to be .5963473 &c.
To ſimplify this ſeries, let us omit the firſt two terms 1 − 1 = 0, which will not alter the value, and divide the remaining terms by 2, and the quotients will give 1 − 3 + 12 − 60 + 360 − 2520 + &c. which, being half the propoſed ſeries, ought to have for its value the half of .596347 &c. namely .298174 nearly.
Now, ranging the terms in a column, and taking the ſums and means as uſual, we have [...] Where it is evident, that the diverging is ſomewhat diminiſhed, but not quite counteracted, in the columns and oblique deſcending lines from beginning to end, as the terms in thoſe directions ſtill increaſe, though not quite ſo faſt as the original ſeries; and that the ſigns of the ſame terms are alternately + and −, while thoſe of the terms in the other lines obliquely aſcending from left to right, are alternately one line all +, and another line all −, and theſe terms continually decreaſing. The terms in the oblique deſcending lines, being alternately too great and too little, are the fitteſt to proceed with again. Take therefore any one of thoſe lines, as ſuppoſe the firſt, and ranging it vertically, take the means as before, and they will approach nearer to the value of the ſeries, thus: [35] [...] Here the ſame approximation in the lines and columns, towards the value of the ſeries, is obſervable again, only in a higher degree; alſo the terms in the columns and oblique deſcending lines, are again alter⯑nately too great and too little, but now within narrower limits, and the ſigns of the terms are more of them poſitive; alſo the terms in each oblique aſcending line, are ſtill either all above or all below the value of the ſeries, and that alternately one line after another as before. But the deſcending lines will again be the fitteſt to uſe, becauſe the terms in each are alternately above and below the value ſought. Tak⯑ing therefore again the firſt of theſe oblique deſcending lines, treat it as before, and we ſhall obtain ſets of terms approaching ſtill nearer to the value, thus: [...] Here the approach to an equality, among all the lines and columns, is ſtill more viſible, and the deviations reſtricted within narrower limits, the terms in the oblique aſcending lines ſtill on one ſide of the value, and gradually increaſing, while the columns and the oblique deſcending lines, for the moſt part, have their terms alternately too great and too little, as is evident from their alternately becoming greater and leſs than each other: and from an inſpection of the whole, it is eaſy to pronounce that the firſt three figures of the number ſought, will be 298. Taking therefore the laſt ſour terms of the firſt deſcending line, and proceeding as before, we have [36] [...]
And, finally, taking the loweſt aſcending line, becauſe it has moſt the appearance of being alternately too great and too little, proceed with it as before, thus: [...] where the numbers in the lines and columns gradually approach nearer together, till the laſt mean is true to the neareſt unit in the laſt figure, giving us .298174 for the value of the propoſed hypergeometrical ſeries 1 − 3 + 12 − 60 + 360 − 2520 + 20160 − &c.
And in like manner are we to proceed with any other ſeries whoſe terms have alternate ſigns.
POSTSCRIPT.Royal Military Acad. Woolwich, May, 1780.
SINCE the foregoing method was diſcovered, and made known to ſeveral friends, two paſſages have been offered to my conſideration, which I ſhall here mention, in juſtice to their authors, Sir Iſaac New⯑ton, and the late learned Mr. Euler.
The firſt of theſe is in Sir Iſaac's letter to Mr. Oldenburg, dated October 24, 1676, and may be ſeen in Collins's Commercium Epiſtolicum, p. 177, the laſt paragraph near the bottom of the page, namely, Per [37]ſeriem Leibnitii etiam, ſi ultimo loco dimidium termini adjiciatur, & alia quaedam ſimilia artificia adhibeantur, poteſt computum produci ad multas figuras. The ſeries here alluded to, is 1 − ⅓ + ⅕ − 1/7 + 1/9 − 1/11 + &c. denoting the area of the circle whoſe diameter is 1; and Sir Iſaac here directs to add in half the laſt term, after having collected all the foregoing, as the means of obtaining the ſum a little exacter. And this, indeed, is equivalent to taking one arithmetical mean between two ſucceſſive ſums, but it does not reach the idea contained in my method. It appears alſo, both by the other words, & alia quaedam ſimilia artificia adhibeantur, contained in the above extract, and by theſe, alias artes adhibuiſſem, a little higher up in the ſame page 177, that Sir Iſaac Newton had ſeveral other contrivances for obtaining the ſums of ſlowly converging ſeries; but what they were, it may perhaps be now impoſſi⯑ble to determine.
The other is a paſſage in the Novi Comment. Petropol. tom. v. p. 226, where Mr. Euler gives an inſtance of taking one ſet of arithmetical means between a ſeries of quantities which are gradually too little and too great, to obtain a nearer value of the ſum of a ſeries in queſtion. But neither does this reach the idea contained in my method. How⯑ever, I have thought it but juſtice to the characters of theſe two eminent men, to make this mention of their ideas, which have ſome relation to my own, though unknown to me at the time of my diſcovery.
A Method of ſumming the Series a + bx + cx2 + dx3 + ex4 + &c. when it converges very ſlowly, namely, when x is nearly equal to 1, and the Coefficients a, b, c, d, &c. decreaſe very ſlowly: the Signs of all the Terms being poſitive.
Art. 1. WHEN we have occaſion to find the ſum of ſuch ſeries as that above-mentioned, having the coefficients a, b, c, d, &c. of the terms, decreaſing very ſlowly, and the con⯑verging quantity x pretty large; we can neither find the ſum by col⯑lecting the terms together, on account of the immenſe number of them which it would be neceſſary to collect; neither can it be ſummed by means of the differential ſeries, becauſe the powers of the quantity x/1−x will then diverge faſter than the differential coefficients converge. In ſuch caſe then we muſt have recourſe to ſome other method of tranſ⯑forming it into another ſeries which ſhall converge faſter. The follow⯑ing is a method by which the propoſed ſeries is changed into another, which converges ſo much the quicker as the original ſeries is ſlower.
2. The method is thus. Aſſume a2/D the given ſeries a + bx + cx2 + dx3 + &c. Then ſhall [...]; which, by actual diviſion, is [...] Conſequently a2 divided by this ſeries will be equal to the ſeries propoſed, and this new ſeries will be very eaſily ſummed, in com⯑pariſon with the original one, becauſe all the coefficients after the ſecond term are evidently very ſmall; and indeed they are ſo much the ſmaller, and fitter for ſummation, by how much the coefficients of the [39]original ſeries are nearer to equality; ſo that when theſe a, b, c, d, &c. are quite equal, then the third, fourth, &c. coefficients of the new ſeries become equal to nothing, and the ſum accurately equal to [...]; which we alſo know to be true from other principles.
3. Although the firſt two terms, a − bx, of the new ſeries be very great in compariſon with each of the following terms, yet theſe latter may not always be ſmall enough to be entirely rejected where much accuracy is required in the ſummation. And in ſuch caſe it will be neceſſary to collect a great number of them, to obtain their ſum pretty near the truth; becauſe their rate of converging is but ſmall, it being indeed pretty much like to the rate of the original ſeries, but only the terms, each to each, are much ſmaller, and that commonly in a degree to the hundredth or thouſandth part.
4. The reſemblance of this new ſeries however, beginning with the third term, to the original one, in the law of progreſſion, intimates to us that it will be beſt to ſum it in the very ſame manner as the former. Hence then putting
and conſequently the propoſed ſeries a + bx + cx2 + &c. = [...], by taking the ſum of the ſeries a′ + b′ x + c′ x2 + &c. by the very [40]ſame theorem as before, the ſum S of the original ſeries will then be expreſſed thus, [...]. where the ſeries in the laſt denominator, having again the ſame pro⯑perties with the former one, will have its firſt two terms very large in reſpect of the following terms. But theſe firſt two terms, a′ − b′x, are themſelves very ſmall in compariſon with the firſt two, a − bx, of the former ſeries; and therefore much more are the third, fourth, &c. terms of this laſt denominator very ſmall in compariſon with the ſame a − bx: for which reaſon they may now perhaps be ſmall enough to be neglected.
5. But if theſe laſt terms be ſtill thought too large to be omitted, then find the ſum of them by the very ſame theorem: and thus proceed, by repeating the operation in the ſame manner, till the required degree of accuracy is obtained. Which it is evident, will happen after a ſmall number of repetitions, becauſe that, in each new denominator, the third, fourth, &c. terms are commonly depreſſed, in the ſcale of num⯑bers, two or three places lower than the firſt and ſecond terms are. And the general theorem, denoting the ſum S when the proceſs is con⯑tinually repeated, will be this, [...].
[41]6. But the general denominator D in the fraction a2/D, which is aſ⯑ſumed for the value of S or a + bx + cx2 + &c. may be otherwiſe found as below; from which the general law of the values of the coefficients will be rendered viſible. Aſſume S or a + bx + cx2 + &c. or [...]; then ſhall [...] Hence, by equating the coefficients of the like terms to nothing, we obtain the following general values:
Where the values of the coefficients are the ſame in effect as before found, but here the law of their continuation is manifeſt
7. To exemplify now the uſe of this method, let it be propoſed to ſum the very ſlow ſeries x + ½x2 + ⅓x3 + ¼x4 + ⅕x5 + ⅙x6 + &c. when x = 9/10 = .9, which denotes the hyperbolic log. of 1/1−x, or in this caſe of 10.
[42]Now it will be proper, in the firſt place, to collect a few of the firſt terms together, and then apply the theorem to the remaining terms, which, by being nearer to an equality than the terms are near the be⯑ginning of the ſeries, will be fitter to receive the application of the theorem. Thus to collect the firſt 12 terms:
| No. | Powers of x | The firſt 12 terms, found by dividing x, x2, x3, &c. by the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. |
| 1 | .9 | .9 |
| 2 | .81 | .405 |
| 3 | .729 | .243 |
| 4 | .6561 | .164025 |
| 5 | .59049 | .118098 |
| 6 | .531441 | .0885735 |
| 7 | .4782969 | .06832812857 |
| 8 | .43046721 | .05380840125 |
| 9 | .387420489 | .043046721 |
| 10 | .3486784401 | .03486784401 |
| 11 | .31381059609 | .02852823601 |
| 12 | .282429536481 | .02353579471 |
| 13 | .2541865828329 | 2.17081162555 the ſum of 12 terms. |
Then we have to find the ſum of the reſt of the terms after theſe firſt 12, namely of x13 × : 1/13 + 1/14x + 1/15x2 + 1/16x3 + &c. in which x = .9, and x13 = .2541865828329; alſo a = 1/13, b = 1/14, c = 1/15, &c. and the firſt application of our rule, gives, for the value of 1/13 + 1/14x + 1/15x2 + &c. or S, [...] the ſecond gives [...] the third gives [...] [43]the fourth gives [...] Or, when the terms in the numerators are ſquared, it is [...] Or, by omitting a proper number of ciphers, it is [...]
I have written an unknown quantity z after the laſt denominator, to repreſent the ſmall quantity to be ſubtracted from the laſt denominator 344. Now, rejecting the ſmall quantity z, and beginning at the laſt fraction to calculate, their values will be as here ranged in the firſt an⯑nexed column.
[...] [44]placing z below them for the next unknown fraction. Divide then every fraction by the next below it, placing the quotients or ratios in the next column. Then take the quotients or ratios of theſe; and ſo on till the laſt ratio [...]; which, from the nature of the ſeries of the firſt terms of every column, muſt be leſs than the next preceding one 2.39: conſequently z muſt be leſs than 1.68×187/63, or leſs than 5. But, from the nature of the ſeries in the vertical row or column of firſt ratios, 187/z muſt be leſs than 63; and conſequently z muſt be greater than 187/63, or greater than 3. Since then z is leſs than 5 and greater than 3, it is probable that the mean value 4 is near the truth: and accordingly taking 4 for z, or rather 4.3, as z appears to be nearer 5 than 3, and taking the continual ratios, as placed along the laſt line of the table, their values are found to accord very well with the next preceding numbers, both in the columns and oblique rows.
Hence, uſing 043 for z in the denominator .344 − z of the laſt frac⯑tion of the general expreſſion, and computing from the bottom, upwards through the whole, the quotients, or values of the fractions, in the inverted order, will be
of which the laſt muſt be nearly the value of the ſeries 1/13 + 1/14x + 1/15x2 + &c. when x = .9.
Then this value .518414 of the ſeries, being multiplied by x13 or .2541865828329, gives .1317738 for the ſum of all the terms of the original ſeries after the firſt 12 terms, to which therefore the ſum of the firſt 12 terms, or 2.17081162, being added, we have 2.30258542 for the ſum of the original ſeries x + ½x2 + ⅓x3 + ¼x4 + &c. Which value is true within about 3 in the 8th place of figures, the more accurate value being 2.30258509 &c. or the hyp. log. of 10.
1. THE roots of given numbers are commonly to be found, with much eaſe and expedition, by means of logarithms, when the indices of ſuch roots are ſimple numbers, and the roots are not required to a great number of figures. And the ſquare or cubic roots of numbers, to a good practical degree of accuracy, may be ob⯑tained, almoſt by inſpection, by means of my tables of ſquares and cubes, publiſhed by order of the Commiſſioners of Longitude, in the year 1781. But when the indices of ſuch roots are certain complex or irrational numbers, or when the roots are required to be found to a great many places of figures, it is neceſſary to make uſe of certain ap⯑proximating rules, by means of the ordinary arithmetical computa⯑tions. Such rules as are here alluded to, have only been diſcovered ſince the great improvements in the modern algebra: and the perſons who have beſt ſucceeded in their enquiries after ſuch rules, have been ſucceſſively Sir Iſaac Newton, Mr. Raphſon, M. de Lagney, and Dr. Halley; who have ſhewn that the inveſtigation of ſuch theorems is alſo uſeful in diſcovering rules for approximating to the roots of all ſorts of affected algebraical equations, to which the former rules, for the roots of all ſimple equations, bear a conſiderable affinity. It is preſumed that the following ſhort tract contains ſome advantages over any other method that has hitherto been given, both as to the eaſe and univerſality of the concluſions, and the general way in which the inveſtigations are made: for here, a theorem is diſcovered, which, although it be general for all roots whatever, is at the ſame time very accurate, and ſo ſimple and [46]eaſy to uſe and to keep in mind, that nothing more ſo can be deſired or hoped for; and farther, that inſtead of ſearching out rules ſeverally for each root, one after another, our inveſtigation is at once for any indefinite poſſible root, by whatever quantity the index is expreſſed, whether fractional, or irrational, or ſimple, or compound.
2. In every theorem, or rule, here inveſtigated, let
Hence then the given number N is [...], and the required root [...] = a + x.
3. Now, for the firſt rule, expand the quantity [...] by the binomial theorem, ſo ſhall we have [...] Subtract an from both ſides, ſo ſhall [...] Divide by [...], ſo ſhall [...] or [...] Here, on account of the ſmallneſs of the quantity x in reſpect of a, all the terms of this ſeries, after the firſt term, will be very ſmall, and may therefore be neglected without much error, which gives us [...] for a near value of x, being only a ſmall matter too great. And conſequently [...] is nearly = N1/n the root ſought. And this may be accounted the firſt theorem.
[47]4. Again, let the equation [...] be multi⯑tiplied by n − 1, and an added to each ſide, ſo ſhall we have [...] for a diviſor: Alſo multiply the ſides of the ſame equation by a and ſubtract an + 1 from each, ſo ſhall we have [...] for a dividend: Divide now this dividend by the diviſor, ſo ſhall [...] Which will be nearly equal to x, for the ſame reaſon as before; and this ex⯑preſſion is nearly as much too little as the former expreſſion was too great. Conſequently, by adding a, we have a + x or N1/n nearly [...] for a ſecond theorem, and which is nearly as much in defect as the for⯑mer was in exceſs.
5. Now becauſe the two foregoing theorems differ from the truth by nearly equal ſmall quantities, if we add together the two numerators and the two denominators of the foregoing two fractional expreſſions, namely [...] and [...], the ſums will be the numerator and denominator of a new fraction, which will be much nearer than either of the former. The fraction ſo found is [...]; which will be very nearly equal to N1/n or a + x the root ſought; for, by diviſion, it is found to be equal to a + x * − n−1/2 · n+1/6 · x3/a2 + &c. where the term is wanting which contains the ſquare of x, and the following terms are very ſmall. And this is the third theorem.
6. A fourth theorem might be found by taking the arithmetical mean [48]between the firſt and ſecond, which would be [...]; which will be nearly of the ſame value, though not ſo ſimple, as the third theorem; for this arithmetical mean is found equal to a + x * + n−1/2 · n−2/3 · x3/a2 + &c.
7. But the third theorem may be inveſtigated in a more general way, thus: Aſſume a quantity of this form [...], with coefficients p and q to be determined from the proceſs; the other letters N, a, n, repre⯑ſenting the ſame things as before; then divide the numerator by the denominator, and make the quotient equal to a + x, ſo ſhall the compariſon of the coefficients determine the relation between p and q required. Thus, [...] [...] then dividing the former of theſe by the latter, we have [...] or [...] Then, by equating the correſponding terms, we obtain theſe three equations
From which we find p−q/p+q = 1/n and p ∶ q ∷ n + 1 ∶ n − 1. So that by ſubſtituting n + 1 and n − 1, or any quantities proportional to them, for p and q, we ſhall have [...] for the va⯑lue of the aſſumed quantity [...], which is ſuppoſed nearly equal to a + x, the required root of the quantity N.
[49]8. Now this third theorem [...], which is ge⯑neral for roots, whatever be the value of n, and whether an be greater or leſs than N, includes all the rational formulas of De Lagney and Halley, which were ſeparately inveſtigated by them; and yet this ge⯑neral formula is perfectly ſimple and eaſy to apply, and eaſier kept in mind than any one of the ſaid particular formulas. For, in words at length, it is ſimply this: to n + 1 times N add n − 1 times an, and to n − 1 times N add n + 1 times an, then the former ſum multi⯑plied by a and divided by the latter ſum, will give the root N1/n nearly; or, as the latter ſum is to the former ſum, ſo is a, the aſſumed root, to the required root, nearly. Where it is to be obſerved that an may be taken either greater or leſs than N, and that the nearer it is to it, the better.
9. By ſubſtituting for n, in the general theorem, ſeverally the num⯑bers 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. we ſhall obtain the following particular theorems, as adapted for the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, &c. roots, namely, for the
10. To exemplify now our formula, let it be firſt required to extract the ſquare root of 365. Here N = 365, n = 2; the neareſt ſquare is 361, whoſe root is 19.
[50]Hence 3 N + a2 = 3 × 365 + 361 = 1456, and N + 3 a2 = 365 + 3 × 361 = 1448; then as 1448 ∶ 1456 ∷ 19 ∶ 19×182/181 = 19 19/181 = 19.10497 &c.
Again, to approach ſtill nearer, ſubſtitute this laſt found root 19×182/181 for a, the values of the other letters remaining as before, we have a2 = 192×1822/1812 = 34582/1812; then
hence 47831057 ∶ 47831059 ∷ 19×182/181 or 3458/181 ∶ 3458×47831059/181×47831057 = the root of 365 very exact, which being brought into decimals, would be true to about 20 places of figures.
11. For a ſecond example, let it be propoſed to double the cube, or to find the cube root of the number 2.
Here N = 2, n = 3, the neareſt root a = 1, alſo a3 = 1. Hence 2 N + a3 = 4 + 1 = 5, and N + 2 a3 = 2 + 2 = 4; then as 4 ∶ 5 ∷ 1 ∶ 5/4 = 1.25 = the firſt approximation. Again, take a = 5/4, and conſequently a3 = 125/64; Hence 2N + a3 = 4 + 125/64 = 381/64, and N + 2a3 = 2 + 250/64 = 378/64; then as 378 : 381, or as 126 ∶ 127 ∷ 5/4 ∶ 5/4 × 127/126 = 635/504 = 1.259921, for the cube root of 2, which is true in the laſt figure.
And by taking 635/504 for the value of a, and repeating the proceſs, a great many more figures may be found.
[51]12. For a third example, let it be required to find the 5th root of 2.
Here N = 2, n = 5, the neareſt root a = 1.
Hence 3 N + 2 a5 = 6 + 2 = 8, and 2 N + 3 a5 = 4 + 3 = 7; then as 7 ∶ 8 ∷ 1 ∶ 8/7 = 1 1/7 for the firſt approximation.
Again, taking a = 8/7, we have 3 N + 2 a5 = 6 + 65536/16807 = 166378/16807, 2 N + 3 a5 = 4 + 98304/16807 = 165532/16807; then as 165532 ∶ 166378 ∷ 8/7 ∶ 8/7 × 83189/82766 = 4/7 × 83189/41383 = 332756/289681 = 1.148698 &c. for the 5th root of 2, and is true in the laſt figure.
13. To find the 7th root of 126⅓.
Here N = 126⅕, n = 7, the neareſt root a = 2, alſo a7 = 128.
Hence 4 N + 3 a7 = 504⅘ + 384 = 888⅘ = 4444/5, and 3 N + 4 a7 = 378⅗ + 512 = 890⅗ = 4453/5; then as 4453 ∶ 4444 ∷ 2 ∶ 8888/4453 = 1.995957, for the root very exact by one operation, being true to the neareſt unit in the laſt figure.
14. To find the 365th root of 1.05, or the amount of 1 pound for 1 day, at 5 per cent. per annum, compound intereſt.
Here N = 1.05, n = 365, a = 1 the neareſt root. Hence 366 N + 364 a = 748.3, and 364 N + 366 a = 748.2; then as 748.2 ∶ 784.3 ∷ 1 ∶ 7483/7482 = 1 1/7482 = 1.00013366, the root ſought very exact at one operation.
15. Let it be required to find the value of the quantity [...] or [...].
[52]Now this may be done two ways; either by finding the ⅔ power or 3/2 root of 21/4 at once; or elſe by finding the 3d or cubic root of 21/4, and then ſquaring the reſult.
By the firſt way:—Here it is eaſy to ſee that a is nearly = 3, becauſe 33/2 = √27 = 5 + ſome ſmall fraction. Hence, to find nearly the ſquare root of 27, or √27, the neareſt power to which is 25 = a2 in this caſe: Hence 3 N + a2 = 3 × 27 + 25 = 106, and N + 3 a2 = 27 + 3 × 25 = 102; then as 102 : 106, or as 51 ∶ 53 ∷ 5 ∶ 5 × 53/51 = 265/51 = √ 27 nearly.
Then having N = 21/4, n = 3/2, a = 3, and a3/2 = 265/51 nearly; it will be 5/2 N + ½ a3/2 = 5/2 × 21/4 + ½ × 265/51 = 6415/408, and ½ N + 5/2 a5/2 = ½ × 21/4 + 5/2 × 265/51 = 6371/408; hence as 6371 ∶ 6415 ∷ 3 ∶ 19245/6371 = 3 134/6371 = 3.020719, for the value of the quantity ſought nearly, by this way.
Again, by the other method, in finding firſt the value of [...], or the cube root of 21/4. It is evident that 2 is the neareſt integer root, being the cube root of 8 = a3.
Hence 2 N + a3 = 21/2 + 8 = 74/4, and N + 2 a3 = 21/4 + 16 = 85/4; then as 85 ∶ 74 ∷ 2 ∶ 148/85 or = 7/4 nearly. Then taking 7/4 for a, we have 2 N + a3 = 21/2 + 343/64 = 1015,64, and N + 2 a3 = 21/4 + 2.343/64 = 1022/64; [53]hence as 1022 : 1015, or as [...] nearly. Conſequently the ſquare of this, or [...] will be = 72/42 × 1452/1462 = 1030225/341056 = 3 7057/341056 = 3.020690, the quantity ſought more nearly, being true in the laſt figure.
1. THE following is one method more, to be added to the many we are already poſſeſſed of, for determining the roots of the higher equations. By means of it we readily find a root, which is ſometimes accurate; and when not ſo, it is at leaſt near the truth, and that by an eaſy finite formula, which is general for all equations of the above form, and of the ſame dimenſion, provided that root be a real one. This is of uſe for depreſſing the equation down to lower dimen⯑ſions, and thence for finding all the roots one after another, when the formula gives the root ſufficiently exact; and when not, it ſerves as a ready means of obtaining a near value of a root, by which to com⯑mence an approximation ſtill nearer, by the previouſly known methods of Newton, or Halley, or others. This method is farther uſeful in elucidating the nature of equations, and certain properties of numbers; as will appear in ſome of the following articles. We have already eaſy methods for finding the roots of ſimple and quadratic equations. I ſhall therefore begin with the cubic equation, and treat of each order of equations ſeparately, in aſcending gradually to the higher dimenſions.
2. Let then the cubic equation x3 − px2 + qx − r = o be pro⯑poſed. Aſſume the root x = a, either accurately or approximately, as it may happen, ſo that x − a = o, accurately or nearly. Raiſe this [55] x − a = o to the third power, the ſame dimenſion with the propoſed equation, ſo ſhall x3 − 3 a x2 + 3 a2 x − a3 = o; but the propoſed equation is x3 − p x2 + q x − r = o; therefore the one of theſe is equal to the other. But the firſt term (x3) of each is the ſame; and hence, if we aſſume the ſecond terms equal between themſelves, it will follow that the ſum of the two remain⯑ing terms will alſo be equal, and give a ſimple equation by which the value of x is determined. Thus, 3a x2 being = px2, or a = ⅓p, we ſhall have 3a2 x − a3 = qx − r, and hence [...], by ſubſtituting ⅓p, the value of a, inſtead of it.
3. Now this value of x here found, will be the middle root of the propoſed cubic equation. For becauſe a is aſſumed nearly or accu⯑rately equal to x, and alſo equal to ⅓ p, therefore x is = ⅓ p nearly or accurately, that is, ⅓ of the ſum of the three roots, to which the coefficient p of the ſecond term of the equation, is always equal; and thus, being a medium among the three roots, it will be either nearly or accurately equal to the middle root of the propoſed equation, when that root is a real one.
4. Now this value of x will always be the middle root accurately, whenever the three roots are in arithmetical progreſſion; otherwiſe, only approximately. For when the three roots are in arithmetical progreſ⯑ſion, ⅓ p or ⅓ of their ſum, it is well known, is equal to the middle term or root. In the other caſes, therefore, the above-found value of x is only near the middle root.
5. When the roots are in arithmetical progreſſion, becauſe the middle term or root is then = ⅓p, and alſo [...], therefore [...], or [...], an equa⯑tion [56]expreſſing the general relation of p, q, and r; where p is the ſum of any three terms in arithmetical progreſſion, q the ſum of their three rectangles, and r the product of all the three. For, in any equation, the coefficient p of the ſecond term, is the ſum of the roots; the coefficient q of the third term, is the ſum of the rectangles of the roots; and the coefficient r of the fourth term, is the ſum of the ſolids of the roots, which in the caſe of the cubic equation is only one:—Thus, if the roots, or arithmetical terms, be 1, 2, 3. Here p = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6, q = 1 × 2 + 1 × 3 + 2 × 3 = 2 + 3 + 6 = 11, r = 1 × 2 × 3 = 6; then 2 p3 = 2 × 63 = 432, and [...] alſo.
6. To illuſtrate now the rule [...] by ſome examples; let us in the firſt place take the equation x3 − 6 x2 + 11 x − 6 = 0. Here p = 6, q = 11, and r = 6; conſequently [...]. This being ſubſtituted for x in the given equation, makes all the terms to vaniſh, and therefore it is an exact root, and the roots will be in arithmetical progreſſion. Dividing therefore the given equation by x − 2 = 0, the quotient is x2 − 4x + 3 = 0, the roots of which quadratic equation are 3 and 1, the other two roots of the propoſed equation x3 − 6 x2 + 11 x − 6 = 0.
7. If the equation be x3 − 39x2 + 479x − 1881 = 0; we ſhall have p = 39, q = 479, and r = 1881; then [...]. Then, ſubſtituting 11 2/7 for x in the propoſed equation, the negative terms are ſound to exceed the poſitive terms by 5, thereby ſhewing that 11 2/7 is very near, but ſomething above, the middle root, and that there⯑fore the roots are not in arithmetical progreſſion. It is therefore pro⯑bable [57]that 11 may be the true value of the root, and on trial it is found to ſucceed.
Then dividing x3 − 39x2 + 479x − 1881 by x − 11, the quotient is x• − 28x + 171 = 0, the roots of which quadratic equation are 9 and 19, the two other roots of the propoſed equation.
8. If the equation be x2 − 6x2 + 9x − 2 = 0; we ſhall have p = 6, q = 9, and r = 2; then [...]. This value of x being ſubſtituted for it in the propoſed equation, cauſes all the terms to vaniſh, as it ought, thereby ſhewing that 2 is the middle root, and that the roots are in arithmetical progreſſion.
Accordingly, dividing the given quantity x3 − 6x2 + 9x − 2 by x − 2, the quotient is x• − 4x + 1 = 0, a quadratic equation, whoſe roots are 2 + √2 and 2 − √2, the two other roots of the equation propoſed.
9. If the equation be x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 1 = 0; we ſhall have p = 5, q = 5, and r = 1; then [...]. From which one might gueſs the root ought to be 1, and which being tried, is found to ſucceed.
But without ſuch trial, we may make uſe of this value 1 4/45, or 1 1/ [...] nearly, and approximate with it in the common way.
Having found the middle root to be 1, divide the given quantity x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 1 by x − 1, and the quotient is x2 − 4x + 1 = 0, the roots of which are 2 + √2 and 2 − √2, the two other roots, as in the laſt article.
[58]10. If the equation be x3 − 7x2 + 18x − 18 = 0; we ſhall have p = 7, q = 18, and r = 18; then [...] or 3 nearly. Then trying 3 for x, it is found to ſucceed. And dividing x3 − 7x2 + 18x − 18 by x − 3, the quotient is x• − 4x + 6 = 0, a quadratic equation whoſe roots are 2 + √−2 and 2 − √−2, the two other roots of the propoſed equation, which are both impoſſible or imaginary.
11. If the equation be x3 − 6x2 + 14x − 12 = 0; we ſhall have p = 6, q = 14, and r = 12; then [...]. Which being ſubſti⯑tuted for x, it is found to anſwer, the ſum of the terms coming out = 0. Therefore the roots are in arithmetical progreſſion. And, ac⯑cordingly, by dividing x3 − 6x2 + 14x − 12 by x − 2, the quotient is x2 − 4x + 6 = 0, the roots of which quadratic equation are 2 + √−2 and 2 − √−2, the two other roots of the propoſed equation, and the common difference of the three roots is √−2.
12. But if the equation be x3 − 8x2 + 22x − 24 = 0; we ſhall have p = 8, q = 22, and r = 24; then [...]. Which being ſubſtituted for x in the propoſed equation, the ſum of the terms differs very widely from the truth, thereby ſhewing that the middle root of the equation is an imaginary one, as it is indeed, the three roots being 4, and 2 + √−2, and 2 − √−2.
13. In Art. 2 the value of x was determined by aſſuming the ſecond terms of the two equations equal to each other. But a like near value might be determined by aſſuming either the two third terms, or the two ſourth terms equal.
[59]Thus the equations being
if we aſſume the third terms 3a2 x and qx equal, or a = √⅓q, the ſums of the ſecond and fourth terms will be equal, namely, 3ax2 + a3 = px2 + r; and hence we find [...] by ſubſtituting √⅓q the value of a inſtead of it.
And if we aſſume the fourth terms equal, namely a3 = r, or 3√r, then the ſums of the ſecond and third terms will be equal, namely, 3ax − 3a2 = px − q; and hence [...], by ſubſtitu⯑ting r⅓ inſtead of a. And either of theſe two formulas will give nearly the ſame value of the root as the firſt formula, at leaſt when the roots do not differ very greatly from one another.
But if they differ very much among themſelves, the firſt formula will not be ſo accurate as theſe two others, becauſe that in them the roots were more complexly mixed together; for the ſecond formula is drawn from the coefficient of the third term, which is the ſum of all the rec⯑tangles of the roots; and the third formula is drawn from the coefficient of the laſt term, which is equal to the continual product of all the roots; while the firſt formula is drawn from the coefficient of the ſecond term, which is ſimply the ſum of the roots. And indeed the laſt theorem is commonly the neareſt of all. So that when we ſuſpect the roots to be very wide of each other, let either the ſecond or third be uſed.
Thus, in the equation x3 − 23x2 + 62x − 40 = 0, whoſe three roots are 1, 2, and 20. Here p = 23, q = 62, r = 40; and by
Where the two latter are much nearer the middle root (2) than the firſt. [60]And the mean between theſe two is 2 1/42, which is very near to that root. And this is commonly the caſe, the one being nearly as much too great as the other is too little.
14. To proceed now, in like manner, to the biquadratic equation, which is of this general form x4 − px3 + qx2 − rx + s = 0.
Aſſume the root x = a, or x − a = 0, and raiſe this equation x − a = 0 to the fourth power, or the ſame height with the propoſed equation, which will give x4 − 4ax3 + 6a2 x2 − 4a3 x + a4 = 0; but the propoſed equation is x4 − px3 + qx2 − rx + s = 0; therefore theſe two are equal to each other. Now if we aſſume the ſecond terms equal, namely 4a = p, or a = ¼p, then the ſums of the three remaining terms will alſo be equal, namely, [...]; and hence [...], or [...] by ſubſtituting ¼p inſtead of a: then, reſolving this quadratic equation, we find its roots to be thus [...]; or if we put A = 3/2 p2 − 4q, B = p2 − 16r, C = p4 − 256s, the two roots will be [...].
15. It is evident that the ſame property is to be underſtood here, as for the cubic equation in Art. 3, namely, that the two roots above found, are the middle roots of the four which belong to the biquadratic equation, when thoſe roots are real ones; for otherwiſe the formulae are [61]of no uſe. But however thoſe roots will not be accurate, when the ſum of the two middle roots, of the propoſed equation, is equal to the ſum of the greateſt and leaſt roots, or when the four roots are in arithmetical progreſſion; becauſe that, in this caſe, ¼ p, the aſſumed value of a, is neither of the middle roots exactly, but only a mean between them.
16. To exemplify this formula [...], let the propo⯑ſed equation be x4 − 12 x3 + 49 x2 − 78 x + 40 = 0. Then A = 3/2 p2 − 4 q = 122 × 3/2 − 4 × 49 = 216 − 196 = 20, B = p3 − 16 r = 123 − 16 × 78 = 1728 − 1248 = 480, C = p4 − 256s = 124 − 256 × 40 = 20736 − 10240 = 10496. Hence [...] nearly, or 4¼ and 1¾ nearly, or nearly 4 and 2, whoſe ſum is 6. And trying 4 and 2, they are both found to anſwer, and there⯑fore they are the two middle roots.
Then [...], by which dividing the given equation x4 − 12 x3 + 49 x2 − 78 x + 40 = 0, the quotient is x2 − 6 x + 5 = 0, the roots of which quadratic equation are 5 and 1, and which therefore are the greateſt and leaſt roots of the equation propoſed.
17. If the equation be x4 − 12 x3 + 47 x2 − 72 x + 36 = 0; then A = 3/2 p2 − 4 q = 122 × 3/2 − 4 × 47 = 216 − 188 = 28, B = p3 − 16 r = 123 − 16 × 72 = 1728 − 1152 = 576, C = p4 − 256 s = 124 − 256 × 36 = 20736 − 9216 = 11520. Hence [...] and 2 1/7, or 3 and 2 nearly; both of which anſwer on trial; and therefore 3 and 2 are the two middle roots.
[62]Then [...], by which dividing the given quantity x4 − 12 x3 + 47 x2 − 72 x + 36 = 0, the quotient is x2 − 7 x + 6 = 0, the roots of which quadratic equation are 6 and 1, which therefore are the greateſt and leaſt roots of the equation propoſed.
18. If the equation be x4 − 7 x3 + 15 x2 − 11 x + 3 = 0; we have A = 3/2 p2 − 4 q = 72 × 3/2 − 4 × 15 = 73½ − 60 = 13½, B = p3 − 16 r = 73 − 16 × 11 = 343 − 176 = 167, C = p4 − 256 s = 74 − 256 × 3 = 2401 − 768 = 1633. Hence [...] or nearly 2 and 1; both which are found, on trial, to anſwer; and therefore 2 and 1 are the two middle roots ſought.
Then [...], by which dividing the given equation x4 − 7 x3 + 15 x2 − 11 x + 3 = 0, the quotient is x2 − 4 x + 1 = 0, the roots of which quadratic equation are 2 + √2 and 2 − √2, and which therefore are the greateſt and leaſt roots of the propoſed equation.
19. But if the equation be x4 − 9 x3 + 30 x2 − 46 x + 24 = 0; we have
Hence [...], an imaginary quantity, ſhewing that the two middle roots are imaginary, and therefore the formula is of no uſe in this caſe, the four roots being 1, 2 + √ −2, 2 − √ −2, and 4.
20. And thus in other examples the two middle roots will be found when they are rational, or a near value when irrational, which in this [63]caſe will ſerve for the foundation of a nearer approximation, to be made in the uſual way.
We might alſo find another formula for the biquadratic equation, by aſſuming the laſt terms as equal to each other; for then the ſum of the 2d, 3d, and 4th terms of each would be equal, and would form another quadratic equation, whoſe roots would be nearly the two mid⯑dle roots of the biquadratic propoſed.
21. Or a root of the biquadratic equation may eaſily be found, by aſſuming it equal to the product of two ſquares, as [...]. For, comparing the terms of this with the terms of the equation pro⯑poſed, in this manner, namely, making the ſecond terms equal, then the third terms equal, and laſtly the ſums of the fourth and fifth terms equal, theſe equations will determine a near value of x by a ſimple equation. For thoſe equations are [...], [...], [...]. Then the values of ab and a + b, found from the firſt and ſecond of theſe equations, and ſubſtituted in the third, this gives [...], a general formula for one of the roots of the biquadratic equation x4 − px3 + qx2 − rx + s = 0.
22. To exemplify now this ſormula, let us take the ſame equation as in Art. 17, namely, x4 − 12 x3 + 47 x2 − 72 x + 36 = 0, the roots of which were there found to be 1, 2, 3, and 6. Then, by our laſt for⯑mula we ſhall have [...], or nearly 1, which is the leaſt root.
[64]23. Again, in the equation x4 − 7 x3 + 15 x − 11 x2 + 3 = 0, whoſe roots are 1, 2, 2 + √2, and 2 − √2, we have [...] nearly, which is nearly a mean between the two leaſt roots 1 and 2 − √2 or ⅗ nearly.
24. But if the equation be x4 − 9 x3 + 30 x2 − 46 x + 24 = 0, which has impoſſible roots, the four roots being 1, 2 + √−2, 2 − √−2, and 4; we ſhall have [...] nearly, which is of no uſe in this caſe of imaginary roots.
25. This formula will alſo ſometimes fail when the roots are all real. As if the equation be x4 − 12 x3 + 49 x2 − 78 x + 40 = 0, the roots of which are 1, 2, 4, and 5. For here [...], which is of no uſe.
26. For equations of higher dimenſions, as the 5th, the 6th, the 7th, &c. we might, in imitation of this laſt method, combine other forms of quantities together. Thus, for the 5th power, we might compare it either with [...], or with [...], or with [...], or with [...]. And ſo for the other powers.
1. IT is well known that this famous theorem is called binomial, becauſe it contains a propoſition of a quantity conſiſting of two terms, as a radix, to be expanded in a ſeries of equal value. It is alſo called emphatically the Newtonian theorem, or Newton's binomial theorem, becauſe he has commonly been reputed the author of it, as he was indeed for the caſe of fractional exponents, which is the moſt general of all, and includes all the other particular caſes, of powers, or diviſions, &c.
2. The binomial, as propoſed in its general form, was, by Newton, thus expreſſed [...]; where P is the firſt term of the binomial, Q the quotient of the ſecond term divided by the firſt, and conſe⯑quently PQ is the ſecond term itſelf; or PQ may repreſent all the terms of a multinomial, after the firſt term, and conſequently Q the quotient of all thoſe terms, except the firſt term, divided by that firſt term, and may be either poſitive or negative; alſo m/n repreſents the exponent of the binomial, and may denote any quantity, integral or fractional, poſitive or negative, rational or ſurd. When the exponent [66]is integral, the denominator n is equal to 1, and the quantity then in this form [...], denotes a binomial to be raiſed to ſome power; the ſeries for which was fully determined before Newton's time, as I have ſhewn in the hiſtorical introduction to my Mathematical Tables, lately publiſhed. When the exponent is fractional, m and n may be any quantities whatever, m denoting the index of ſome power to which the binomial is to be raiſed, and n the index of the root to be extracted of that power: and to this caſe it was firſt extended and applied by Newton. When the exponent is negative, the reciprocal of the ſame quantity is meant; as [...] is equal to [...].
3. Now when the radical binomial is expanded in an equivalent ſeries, it is aſſerted that it will be in this general form, namely [...]. where the law of the progreſſion is viſible, and the quantities P, m, n, Q, include their ſigns + or −, the terms of the ſeries being all poſitive when Q is poſitive, and alternately poſitive and negative when Q is negative, independent however of the effect of the coefficients made up of m and n: alſo A, B, C, D, &c. in the latter form, denote each pre⯑ceding term. This latter form is the eaſier in practice, when we want [67]to collect the ſum of the terms of a ſeries; but the former is the fitter for ſhewing the law of the progreſſion of the terms.
4. The truth of this ſeries was not demonſtrated by Newton, but only inferred by way of induction. Since his time however, ſeveral attempts have been made to demonſtrate it, with various ſucceſs, and in various ways; of which however thoſe are juſtly preferred, which proceed by pure algebra, and without the help of fluxions. And ſuch has been eſteemed the difficulty of proving the general caſe independent of the doctrine of fluxions, that many eminent mathematicians to this day account the demonſtration not fully accompliſhed, and ſtill a thing greatly to be deſired. Such a demonſtration I think I have effected. But before I deliver it, it may not be improper to premiſe ſomewhat of the hiſtory of this theorem, its riſe, progreſs, extenſion, and demon⯑ſtrations.
5. Till very lately the prevailing opinion has been, that the theorem was not only invented by Newton, but firſt of all by him; that is, in that ſtate of perfection in which the terms of the ſeries for any aſſigned power whatever, can be found independently of the terms of the pre⯑ceding powers; namely, the ſecond term from the firſt, the third term from the ſecond, the fourth term from the third, and ſo on, by a gene⯑ral rule. Upon this point I have already given an opinion in the hiſtory to my logarithms, above cited, and I ſhall here enlarge ſome⯑what farther on the ſame head.
That Newton invented it himſelf, I make no doubt. But that he was not the firſt inventor, is at leaſt as certain. It was deſcribed by Briggs, in his Trigonometria Britannica, long before Newton was born; not indeed for fractional exponents, for that was the application of Newton, but for any integral power whatever, and that by the general law of the terms as laid down by Newton, independent of the terms of the powers preceding that which is required. For as to the generation of the coefficients of the terms of one power from thoſe of [68]the preceding powers, ſucceſſively one after another, it was remarked by Vieta, Oughtred, and many others, and was not unknown to much more early writers on arithmetic and algebra, as will be manifeſt by a ſlight inſpection of their works, as well as the gradual advance the pro⯑perty made, both in extent and perſpicuity, under the hands of the ſucceſſive maſters in arithmetic, every one adding ſomewhat more towards the perfection of it.
6. Now the knowledge of this property of the coefficients of the terms in the powers of a binomial, is at leaſt as old as the practice of the ex⯑traction of roots; for this property was both the foundation, the prin⯑ciple, and the means of thoſe extractions. And as the writers on arith⯑metic became acquainted with the nature of the coefficients in powers ſtill higher, juſt ſo much higher did they extend the extraction of roots, ſtill making uſe of this property. At firſt it ſeems they were only ac⯑quainted with the nature of the ſquare, which conſiſts of theſe three terms, 1, 2, 1; and accordingly extracted the ſquare roots of numbers by means of them; but went no farther. The nature of the cube next preſented itſelf, which conſiſts of theſe four terms, 1, 3, 3, 1; and by means of theſe they extracted the cubic roots of numbers, in the ſame manner as we do at preſent. And this was the extent of their extrac⯑tions in the time of Lucas de Burgo, an Italian, who, from 1470 to 1500, wrote ſeveral tracts on arithmetic, containing the ſum of what was then known of this ſcience, which chiefly conſiſted in the doctrine of the proportions of numbers, the nature of figurate numbers, and the extraction of roots, as far as the cubic root incluſively.
7. It was not long however before the nature of the coefficients of all the higher powers became known, and tables formed for conſtructing them indefinitely. For in the year 1543 came out, at Norimberg, an excellent treatiſe of arithmetic and algebra, by Michael Stifelius, a Ger⯑man divine, and an honeſt, but a weak, diſciple of Luther. In this work, Arithmetica Integra, of Stifelius, are contained ſeveral curious [69]things, ſome of which have been aſcribed to a much later date. He here treats pretty fully and ably, of progreſſional and figurate numbers, and in particular of the following table for conſtructing both them and the coefficients of the terms of all powers of a binomial, which has been ſo often uſed ſince his time for theſe and other purpoſes, and which more than a century after was, by Paſcal, otherwiſe called the arithme⯑tical triangle, and who only mentioned ſome additional properties of the table.
| 1 | |||||||
| 2 | |||||||
| 3 | 3 | ||||||
| 4 | 6 | ||||||
| 5 | 10 | 10 | |||||
| 6 | 15 | 20 | |||||
| 7 | 21 | 35 | 35 | ||||
| 8 | 28 | 56 | 70 | ||||
| 9 | 36 | 84 | 126 | 126 | |||
| 10 | 45 | 120 | 210 | 252 | |||
| 11 | 55 | 165 | 330 | 462 | 462 | ||
| 12 | 66 | 220 | 495 | 792 | 924 | ||
| 13 | 78 | 286 | 715 | 1287 | 1716 | 1716 | |
| 14 | 91 | 364 | 1001 | 2002 | 3003 | 3432 | |
| 15 | 105 | 455 | 1365 | 3003 | 5005 | 6435 | 6435 |
| 16 | 120 | 560 | 1820 | 4368 | 8008 | 11440 | 12870 |
| 17 | 136 | 680 | 2380 | 6188 | 12376 | 19448 | 24310 |
Stifelius here obſerves that the horizontal lines of this table furniſh the coefficients of the terms of the correſpondent powers of a binomial; and teaches how to uſe them in extracting the roots of all powers what⯑ever. And after him the ſame table was uſed for the ſame purpoſe, by Cardan, and Stevin, and the other writers on arithmetic. I ſuſpect, however, that the nature of this table was known much earlier than the time of Stifelius, at leaſt ſo far as regards the progreſſions of figurate numbers, a doctrine amply treated of by Nicomachus, who lived, according to ſome, before Euclid, but not till long after him according to others; and whoſe work on arithmetic was publiſhed at Paris in 1538; and which it is ſuppoſed was chiefly copied in the treatiſe on the ſame ſubject by Boethius: but I have never ſeen either [70]of theſe two works. Though indeed Cardan ſeems to aſcribe the in⯑vention of the table to Stifelius; but I ſuppoſe that is only to be underſtood of its application to the extraction of roots. See Cardan's Opus Novum de Proportionibus, where he quotes it, and extracts the table and its uſe from Stifelius's book. Cardan alſo, at page 185, et ſeq. of the ſame work, makes uſe of a like table to find the number of va⯑riations of things, or conjugations as he calls them.
8. The contemplation of this table has probably been attended with the invention and extenſion of ſome of our moſt curious diſcoveries in mathematics, both in regard to the powers of a binomial, with the conſequent extraction of roots, the doctrine of angular ſections by Vieta, and the differential method by Briggs and others. For, one or two of the powers or ſections being once known, the table would be of excel⯑lent uſe in diſcovering and conſtructing the reſt. And accordingly we find this table uſed on many occaſions by Stifelius, Cardan, Stevin, Vieta, Briggs, Oughtred, Mercator, Paſcal, &c. &c.
9. On this occaſion I cannot help mentioning the ample manner in which I ſee Stifelius, at fol. 35, et ſeq. of the ſame book, treats of the nature and uſe of logarithms, though not under the ſame name, but under the idea of a ſeries of arithmeticals, adapted to a ſeries of geo⯑metricals. He there explains all their uſes; ſuch as that the addition of them, anſwers to the multiplication of their geometricals; ſubtraction to diviſion; multiplication of exponents, to involution; and dividing of exponents, to evolution. And he exemplifies the uſe of them in caſes of the Rule-of-Three, and in finding mean proportionals between given terms, and ſuch like, exactly as is done in logarithms. So that he ſeems to have been in the full poſſeſſion of the idea of logarithms, and wanted only the neceſſity of troubleſome calculations to induce him to make a table of ſuch numbers.
[71]10. But although the nature and conſtruction of this table, namely of figurate numbers, was thus early known, and employed in the raiſing of powers, and extracting of roots; yet it was only by raiſing the num⯑bers one from another by continual additions, and then taking them from the table for uſe when wanted; till Briggs firſt pointed out the way of raiſing any horizontal line in the foregoing table by itſelf, with⯑out any of the preceding lines; and thus teaching to raiſe the terms of any power of a binomial, independent of any other powers; and ſo gave the ſubſtance of the binomial ſeries in words, wanting only the notation in ſymbols; as I have ſhewn at large at page 75 of the hiſtorical intro⯑duction to my Mathematical Tables.
11. Whatever was known however of this matter, related only to pure or integral powers, no one before Newton having thought of extracting roots by infinite ſeries. He happily diſcovered, that, by conſidering powers and roots in a continued ſeries, roots being as powers having fractional exponents, the ſame binomial ſeries would equally ſerve for them all, whether the index ſhould be fractional or integral, or the ſeries be finite or infinite.
12. The truth of this method however was long known only by trial in particular caſes, and by induction from analogy. Nor does it appear that even Newton himſelf ever attempted any direct proof of it. But various demonſtrations of this theorem have been ſince given by the more modern mathematicians, of which ſome are by means of the doc⯑trine of fluxions, and others, more legally, from the pure principles of algebra only. Some of which I ſhall here give a ſhort account of.
13. One of the firſt was Mr. James Bernoulli. His demonſtration is, among ſeveral other curious things, contained in his little work called Ars Conjectandi, which has been improperly omitted in the collection of his works publiſhed by his nephew Nicholas Bernoulli. This is a ſtrict [72]demonſtration of the binomial theorem in the caſe of integral and affirmative powers, and is to this effect. Suppoſing the theorem to be true in any one power, as for inſtance, in the cube, it muſt be true in the next higher power; which he demonſtrates. But it is true in the cube, in the fourth, fifth, ſixth, and ſeventh powers, as will eaſily appear by trial, that is by actually raiſing thoſe powers by continual multipli⯑cations. Therefore it is true in all higher powers. All this he ſhews in a regular and legitimate manner, from the principles of multipli⯑cation, and without the help of fluxions. But he could not extend his proof to the other caſes of the binomial theorem, in which the powers are fractional. And this demonſtration has been copied by Mr. John Stewart, in his commentary on Sir Iſaac Newton's quadrature of curves. To which he has added, from the principles of fluxions, a demonſtra⯑tion of the other caſe, for roots or fractional exponents.
14. In No. 230 of the Philoſophical Tranſactions for the year 1697, is given a theorem, by Mr. De Moivre, in imitation of the bi⯑nomial theorem, which is extended to any number of terms, and thence called the multinomial theorem; which is a general expreſſion in a ſeries, for raiſing any multinomial quantity to any power. His de⯑monſtration of the truth of this theorem, is independent of the truth of the binomial theorem, and contains in it a demonſtration of the binomial theorem as a ſubordinate propoſition, or particular caſe of the other more general theorem. And this demonſtration may be con⯑ſidered as a legitimate one, for pure powers, founded on the principles of multiplication, that is, on the doctrine of combinations and permu⯑tations. And it proves that the law of the continuation of the terms, muſt be the ſame in the terms not computed, or not ſet down, as in thoſe that are written down.
15. The ingenious Mr. Landen has given an inveſtigation of the binomial theorem, in his Diſcourſe concerning the Reſidual Analyſis, printed in 1758, and in the Reſidual Analyſis itſelf, printed in 1764. [73]The inveſtigation is deduced from this lemma, namely, if m and n be any integers, and q = v/x, then is [...] which theorem is made the principal baſis of his Reſidual Analyſis.
The inveſtigation is this: the binomial propoſed being [...], aſ⯑ſume it equal to the following ſeries 1 + ax + bx2 + cx3 &c. with indeterminate coefficients. Then for the ſame reaſon as [...] will [...] Then, by ſubtraction, [...] And, dividing both ſides by x − y, and by the lemma, we have [...] Then, as this equation muſt hold true whatever be the value of y, take y = x, and it will become [...] Conſequently, multiplying by 1 + x, we have [...], or its equal by the aſſumption, viz. [...] [...] [74]Then, by comparing the homologous terms, the value of the coefficients a, b, c, &c. are deduced for as many terms as you compare.
And a large account is given of this inveſtigation by the learned Dr. Hales, in his Analyſis Equationum, lately publiſhed at Dublin.
Mr. Landen then contraſts this inveſtigation with that by the method of fluxions, which is as follows. Aſſume as before; [...] Take the fluxion of each ſide, and we have [...] Divide by ẋ, or take it = 1, ſo ſhall [...]
Then multiply by 1 + x, and ſo on as above in the other way.
16. Beſides the above, which are the principal demonſtrations and inveſtigations that have been given of this important theorem, I have been ſhewn an ingenious attempt of Mr. Baron Maſeres, to demon⯑ſtrate this theorem in the caſe of roots or fractional exponents, by the help of De Moivre's multinomial theorem. But, not being quite ſatiſ⯑fied with his own demonſtration, as not expreſſing the law of continua⯑tion of the terms which are not actually ſet down, he was pleaſed to urge me to attempt a more complete and ſatisfactory demonſtration of the general caſe of roots, or fractional exponents. And he farther propoſed it in this form, namely, that if Q be the coefficient of one of the terms of the ſeries which is equal to [...], and P the coefficient of the next preceding term, and R the coefficient of the next follow⯑lowing term; then, if Q be [...], to prove that R will be [...]. This he obſerved would be quite perfect and ſatisfactory, [75]as it would include all the terms of the ſeries, as well thoſe that are omitted, as thoſe that are actually ſet down. And I was, in my de⯑monſtration, to ſuppoſe, if I pleaſed, the truth of the binomial and mul⯑tinomial theorems for integral powers, as truths that had been previ⯑ouſly and perfectly proved.
In conſequence I ſent him ſoon after the ſubſtance of the following demonſtration; with which he was quite ſatisfied, and which I now proceed to explain at large.
17. Now the binomial integral is [...]. where a, b, c, &c. denote the whole coefficients of the 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. terms, over which they are placed; and in which the law is this, namely, if P, Q, R, be the coefficients of any three terms in ſucceſſion, and if g/b P = Q, then is [...]; as is evident; and which, it is granted, has been proved.
18. And the binomial fractional is [...]. in which the law is this, namely, if P, Q, R be the coefficients of three terms in ſucceſſion; and if g/b P = Q, then is [...]. Which is the property to be proved.
[76]19. Again, the multinomial integral is [...] [77] [...] &c. Or, if we put a, b, c, d, &c. for the coefficients of the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, &c. terms, the laſt ſeries, by ſubſtitution, will be transformed into this form, [...]
[78]20. Now, to find the ſeries in Art. 18, aſſume the propoſed binomial equal to a ſeries with indeterminate coefficients, as [...] Then raiſe each ſide to the n power, ſo ſhall [...]. But it is granted that the multinomial raiſed to any integral power is proved, and known to be, as in the laſt Art. [...] It follows then, that if this laſt ſeries be equal to 1 + x, by equating the homologous coefficients, all the terms after the ſecond muſt vaniſh, or all the coefficients b, c, d, &c. after the ſecond term, muſt be each = 0. Writing therefore, in this ſeries, 0 for each of the letters b, c, d, &c. it will become of this more ſimple form, [...]. Put now each of the coefficients, after the ſecond term, = 0, and we ſhall have theſe equations [...] [...] [...] [...] &c. [79]The reſolution of which equations gives the following values of the aſſumed indeterminate coefficients, namely, [...], &c. which coefficients are according to the law propoſed, namely, when g/h P = Q, then g−n/h+n Q = R. Q. E. D.
21. Alſo, by equating the ſecond coefficients, namely, 1 = a = nA, we find A = 1/n. This being written for A in the above values of B, C, D, &c. will give the proper ſeries for the binomial in queſtion, namely [...].
22. In the demonſtrations or inveſtigations of the truth of the binomial theorem, the but or object has always been the law of the coefficients of the terms: the form of the ſeries, as to the powers of x, having never been diſputed, but taken for granted, either as incapable of receiving a demonſtration, or as too evident to need one. But ſince the demonſtration of the law of the coefficients has been accompliſhed, in which the main, if not the only, difficulty was ſuppoſed to conſiſt, we have extended our reſearches ſtill farther, and have even doubted or queried the very form of the terms themſelves, namely, 1 + Ax + Bx2 + Cx3 + Dx4 + &c. increaſing by the regular in⯑tegral ſeries of the powers of x, as aſſumed to denote the quantity [...], or the n root of 1 + x. And in conſequence of theſe ſcruples, I have been required, by a learned friend, to vindicate the [80]propriety of that aſſumption. Which I think is effectually done as follows.
23. To prove then, that any root of the binomial 1 + x can be re⯑preſented by a ſeries of this form 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 &c. where the coefficients are omitted, our attention being now employed only on the powers of x; let the ſeries repreſenting the value of [...] be 1 + A + B + C + D + &c. where A, B, C, &c. now repreſent the whole of the 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. terms, both their coef⯑ficients and the powers of x, whatever they may be, only increaſing from the leſs to the greater, becauſe they increaſe in the terms 1 + x of the given binomial itſelf; and in which the firſt term muſt evidently be 1, the ſame as in the given binomial.
Raiſe now [...] and its equivalent ſeries 1 + A + B + C + &c. both to the n power by the multinomial theorem, and we ſhall have, as before, [...] Then equate the correſponding terms, and we have the firſt term 1 = 1.
Again, the ſecond term of the ſeries n/1 A, muſt be equal to the ſecond term x of the binomial. For none of the other terms of the ſeries are equipollent, or contain the ſame power of x, with the term n/1 A. Not any of the terms A2, A3, A4, &c. for they are double, triple, quadru⯑ple, &c. in power to A. Nor yet any of the terms containing B, C, D, &c. becauſe, by the ſuppoſition, they contain all different and [81]increaſing powers. It follows therefore, that n/1 A makes up the whole value of the ſecond term x of the given binomial. Conſequently the ſecond term A of the aſſumed ſeries, contains only the firſt power of x; and the whole value of that term A is = 1/nx.
But all the other equipollent terms of the expanded ſeries muſt be equal to nothing, which is the general value of the terms, after the ſecond, of the given quantity 1 + x or 1 + x + 0 + 0 + 0 + &c. Our buſineſs is therefore to find the ſeveral orders of equipollent terms of the expanded ſeries. And theſe I ſay will be as I have arranged them above, in which B is equipollent with A2, C with A3, D with A4, and ſo on.
Now that B is equipollent with A2, is thus proved. The value of the third term is 0. But [...] is a part of the third term. And it is only a part of that term: otherwiſe [...] would be = 0, which it is evident cannot happen in every value of n, as it ought; for in⯑deed it happens only when n is = 1. Some other quantity then muſt be equipollent with n/1 · n−1/2 A2, and muſt be joined with it, to make up the whole third term equal to 0. Now that ſupplemental quantity can be no other than n/1B: for all the other following terms are evi⯑dently plupollent than B. It follows therefore, that B is equipol⯑lent with A2, and contains the ſecond power of x; or that [...], and conſequently [...].
Again, the fourth term muſt be = 0. But the quantities n/1 · n−1/2 · n−2/3 A3 + n/1 · n−1/2 AB are equipollent, and make up part of that fourth term. They are equipollent, or A3 equipollent with AB, becauſe A2 and B are equipollent. And they do not [82]conſtitute the whole of that term; for if they did, then would n1 · n−1/2 · n−2/3 A3 + n/1 · n−1/2 AB be = 0 in all values of n, or n−2/3 A3 + B = 0: but it has been juſt ſhewn above, that n−1/2 A2 + B = 0; it would therefore follow that n−2/3 would be = n−1/2, a circumſtance which can only happen where n = −1, inſtead of taking place for every value of n. Some other quantity muſt therefore be joined with theſe to make up the whole of the fourth term. And this ſupplemental quantity can be no other than n/1 c, becauſe all the other following quantities are evidently plupollent than A3 or AB. It follows therefore, that C is equipollent with A3, and therefore contains the 3d power of x. And the whole value of C is [...].
And the proceſs is the ſame for all the other following terms. Thus, then, we have proved the law of the whole ſeries, both with reſpect to the coefficients of its terms, and to the powers of the letter x.
THE ſtudy of the mathematical ſciences is uſeful and profitable, not only on account of the benefit derivable from them to the affairs of mankind in general; but are moſt eminently ſo, for the plea⯑ſure and delight the human mind feels in the diſcovery and contempla⯑tion of the endleſs number of truths that are continually preſenting themſelves to our view. Theſe meditations are of a ſublimity far above all others, whether they be purely intellectual, or whether they reſpect the nature and properties of material objects: they methodiſe, ſtrengthen, and extend the reaſoning faculties in the moſt eminent de⯑gree, and ſo fit the mind the better for underſtanding and improving every other ſcience; but, above all, they furniſh us with the pureſt and moſt permanent delight, from the contemplation of truths peculiarly certain and immutable, and from the beautiful analogy which reigns through all the objects of ſimilar inquiry. In the mathematical ſciences, the diſcovery, often accidental, of a plain and ſimple property, is but the harbinger of a thouſand others of the moſt ſublime and beautiful nature, to which we are gradually led, delighted, from the more ſimple to the more compound and general, till the mind becomes quite en⯑raptured at the full blaze of light burſting upon it from all directions.
[84]Of theſe very pleaſing ſubjects, the ſtriking analogy that prevails among the properties of geometrical figures, or figured extenſion, is not one of the leaſt. Here we often find that a plain and obvious property of one of the ſimpleſt figures, leads us to, and forms only a particular caſe of, a property in ſome other figure, leſs ſimple; afterwards this again turns out to be no more than a particular caſe of another ſtill more general; and ſo on, till at laſt we often trace the tendency to end in a general property of all figures whatever.
The few properties which make a part of this paper, conſtitute a ſmall ſpecimen of the analogy, and even identity, of ſome of the more remarkable properties of the circle, with thoſe of the ſphere. To which are added ſome properties of the lines of ſection, and of contact, be⯑tween the ſphere and cone. Both which may be farther extended as occaſions may offer: like as all of theſe properties have occurred from the circumſtance, mentioned near the end of the paper, of conſidering the inner ſurface of a hollow ſpherical veſſel, as viewed by an eye, or as illuminated by rays, from a given point.
All the tangents are equal, which are drawn, from a given point with⯑out a ſphere, to the ſurface of the ſphere quite around.
DEMONS. For, let PT be any tangent from the given point P; and draw PC to the center C, and join TC. Alſo let CTA be a great circle of the ſphere in the plane of the triangle TPC. Then, CP and CT, as well as the angle T, which is right (Eucl. iii. 18), being conſtant, in every poſition of the tangent, or of the point of contact T; the ſquare of PT will be every where equal to the difference of the ſquares of the conſtant lines CP, CT, and therefore conſtant; and conſequently the line or tangent PT itſelf of a conſtant length, in every poſition, quite round the ſurface of the ſphere.
If a tangent be drawn to a ſphere, and a radius be drawn from the center to the point of contact, it will be perpendicular to the tangent; and a perpendicular to the tangent will paſs through the center.
DEMONS. For, let PT be the tangent, TC the radius, and CTA a great circle of the ſphere in the plane of the triangle TPC, as in the foregoing propoſition. Then, PT touching the circle in the point T, the radius TC is perpendicular to the tangent PT by Eucl. iii. 18, 19.
If any line or chord be drawn in a ſphere, its extremes terminating in the circumference; then a perpendicular drawn to it from the center, will biſect it: and if the line drawn from the center, biſect it, it is per⯑pendicular to it.
DEMONS. For, a plane may paſs through the given line and the cen⯑ter of the ſphere; and the ſection of that plane with the ſphere, will be a great circle (Theodoſ. i. 1), of which the given line will be a chord. Therefore (Eucl. iii. 3) the perpendicular biſects the chord, and the biſecting line is perpendicular.
COROL. A line drawn from the center of the ſphere, to the center of any leſſer circle, or circular ſection, is perpendicular to the plane of that circle. For, by the propoſition, it is perpendicular to all the dia⯑meters of that circle.
If from a given point, a right line be drawn in any poſition through a ſphere, cutting its ſurface always in two points; the rectangle con⯑tained under the whole line and the external part, that is the rectangle contained by the two diſtances between the given point, and the two points where the line meets the ſurface of the ſphere, will always be of [86]the ſame conſtant magnitude, namely, equal to the ſquare of the tangent drawn from the ſame given point.
DEMONS. Let P be the given point, and AB the two points in which the line PAB meets the ſurface of the ſphere: through PAB and the center let a plane cut the ſphere in the great circle TAB, to which draw the tangent PT. Then the rectangle PA.PB is equal to the ſquare of PT (Eucl. iii. 36); but PT, and conſequently its ſquare, is con⯑ſtant by Prop. 1; therefore the rectangle PA.PB, which is always equal to this ſquare, is every where of the ſame conſtant magnitude.
If any two lines interſect each other within a ſphere, and be termi⯑nated at the ſurface on both ſides; the rectangle of the parts of the one line, will be equal to the rectangle of the parts of the other. And, univerſally, the rectangles of the two parts of all lines paſſing through the point of interſection, are all of the ſame magnitude.
DEMONS. Through any one of the lines, as AB, conceive a plane to be drawn through the center C of the ſphere, cutting the ſphere in the great circle ABD; and draw its diameter DCPF through the point of interſection P of all the lines. Then the rectangle AP.PB is equal to the rectangle DP.PF (Eucl. iii. 35).
Again, through any other of the interſecting lines GH, and the center, conceive another plane to paſs, cutting the ſphere in another great circle DGFH. Then, becauſe the points C and P are in this latter plane, the line CP, and conſequently the whole diameter DCPF, is in the ſame plane; and therefore it is a diameter of the circle DGFH, of which GPH is a chord. Therefore, again, the rectangle GP.PH is equal to the rectangle DP.PF (Eucl. iii. 35)
[37]Conſequently all the rectangles AP.PB, GP.PH, &c. are equal, being each equal to the conſtant rectangle DP.PF.
COROL. The great circles paſſing through all the lines or chords which interſect in the point P, will all interſect in the common dia⯑meter DPF.
If a ſphere be placed within a cone, ſo as to touch it in two points; then ſhall the outſide of the ſphere, and the inſide of the cone, mutually touch quite around, and the line of contact will be a circle.
DEMONS. Let V be the vertex of the cone, C the center of the ſphere, T one of the two points of contact, and TV a ſide of the cone. Draw CT, CV. Then TVC is a triangle right-angled at T (Prop. 2). In like manner, t being another point of contact, and Ct being drawn, the triangle tVC will be right-angled at t. Theſe two triangles then, TVC, tVC, having the two ſides CT, TV, equal to the two Ct, tV (Prop. 1), and the included angle T equal to the included angle t, will be equal in all reſpects (Eucl. i. 4), and conſequently have the angle TVC equal to the angle tVC.
Again, let fall the perpendiculars TP, tP. Then the two triangles TVP, tVP, having the two angles TVP and TPV equal to the two tVP and tPV, and the ſide TV equal to the ſide tV (Prop. 1), will be equal in all reſpects (Eucl. i. 26); conſequently TP is equal to tP, and VP equal to VP. Hence PT, Pt are radii of a little circle of the ſphere, whoſe plane is perpendicular to the line CV, and its cir⯑cumference every where equidiſtant from the point C or V. This circle is therefore a circular ſection both of the ſphere and of the cone, and is therefore the line of their mutual contact. Alſo CV is the axis of the cone.
[88]COROL. 1. The axis of a cone, when produced, paſſes through the center of the inſcribed ſphere.
COROL. 2. Hence alſo, every cone circumſcribing a ſphere, ſo that their ſurfaces touch quite around, is a right cone; nor can any ſcalene or oblique cone touch a ſphere in that manner.
The two common ſections of the ſurfaces of a ſphere and a right cone, are the circumferences of circles if the axis of the cone paſs through the center of the ſphere.
DEMONS. Let V be the vertex of the cone, C the center of the ſphere, and S one point of the leſs or nearer ſection; draw the lines CS, CV. Then, in the triangle CSV, the two ſides CS, CV, and the in⯑cluded angle SCV, are conſtant for all poſitions of the ſide VS; and therefore the ſide VS is of a conſtant length for all poſitions, and is conſequently the ſide of a right cone having a circular baſe; therefore the locus of all the points S, is the circumference of a circle perpendicular to the axis CV, that is, the common ſection of the ſurfaces of the ſphere and cone, is that circumference.
In the ſame manner it is proved that, if A be any point in the farther or greater ſection, and CA be drawn; then VA is conſtant for all po⯑ſitions, and therefore, as before, is the ſide of a cone cut off by a circu⯑lar ſection whoſe plane is perpendicular to the axis.
And theſe circles, being both perpendicular to the axis, are parallel to each other. Or, they are parallel becauſe they are both circular ſec⯑tions of the cone.
COROL. 1. Hence SA = sa, becauſe VA = Va, and VS = Vs.
COROL. 2. All the intercepted equal parts SA, sa, &c. are equally diſtant from the center. For, all the ſides of the triangle SCA [89]are conſtant, and therefore the perpendicular CP is conſtant alſo. And thus all the equal right lines or chords in a ſphere, are equally diſtant from the center.
COROL. 3. The ſections are not circles, and therefore not in planes, if the axis paſs not through the center. For then ſome of the points of ſection are farther from the vertex than others.
Of the two common ſections of a ſphere and an oblique cone, if the one be a circle, the other will be a circle alſo.
DEMONS. Let SAas and ASVa be ſections of the ſphere and cone, made by a common plane paſſ⯑ing through the axes of the cone and the ſphere; alſo Ss, Aa the diameters of the two ſections. Now, by the ſuppoſition, one of theſe, as Aa, is the diameter of a circle. But the angle VSs = the angle VaA (Eucl. i. 13, and iii. 22), therefore Ss cuts the cone in ſub-contrary poſition to Aa; and conſequently if a plane paſs through Ss, and perpendicular to the plane AVa, its ſection with the oblique cone will be a circle, whoſe diameter is the line Ss (Apol. i. 5). But the ſection of the ſame plane and the ſphere, is alſo a circle whoſe diameter is the ſame line Ss (Theod. i. 1). Conſequently the circum⯑ference of the ſame circle, whoſe diameter is Ss, is in the ſurface both of the cone and ſphere; and therefore that circle is the common ſec⯑tion of the cone and ſphere.
In like manner, if the one ſection be a circle whoſe diameter is Sa, the other ſection will be a circle whoſe diameter is sA.
COROL. 1. Hence if the one ſection be not a circle, neither of them is a circle; and conſequently they are not in planes; for the ſection of a ſphere by a plane, is a circle.
COROL. 2. When the ſections of a ſphere and oblique cone are circles, the axis of the cone does not paſs through the center of the [90]ſphere, (except when one of the ſections is a great circle, or paſſes through the center). For the axis paſſes through the center of the baſe, but not perpendicularly; whereas a line drawn from the center of the ſphere to the center of the baſe, is perpendicular to the baſe, by Cor. to Prop. 3.
COROL. 3. Hence, if the inſide of a bowl, which is a hemiſphere, or any ſegment of the ſphere, be viewed by an eye not ſituated in the axis produced, which is perpendicular to the ſection or brim; the lower, or extreme part of the internal ſurface which is viſible, will be bounded by a circle of the ſphere; and the part of the ſurface ſeen by the eye, will be included between the ſaid circle, and the border or brim, which it interſects in two points. For the eye is in the place of the vertex of the cone; and the rays from the eye to the brim of the bowl, and thence continued from the nearer part of the brim, to the oppoſite in⯑ternal ſurface, form the ſides of the cone; which, by the propoſition, will form a circular arc on the ſaid internal ſurface; becauſe the brim, which is the one ſection, is a circle.
And hence, the place of the eye being given, the quantity of inter⯑nal ſurface that can be ſeen, may be eaſily determined. For the diſ⯑tance and height of the eye, with reſpect to the brim, will give the greateſt diſtance of the ſection below the brim, together with its magni⯑tude and inclination to the plane of the brim; which being known, common menfuration furniſhes us with the meaſure of the ſurface in⯑cluded between them. Thus, if AB be the diameter in the vertical plane paſſing through the eye at E, alſo AFB the ſec⯑tion of the bowl by the ſame plane, and AIB the ſupplement of that arc. Draw EAF, EIB, cutting this vertical circle in F and I; and join IF. Then ſhall IF be the diameter of the ſection or extremity of the viſible ſurface, and BF its greateſt diſtance below the brim, an arc which meaſures an angle double the angle at A.
[91]COROL. 4. Hence alſo, and from Propoſition 4, it follows, that if through every point in the circumference of a circle, lines be drawn to a given point E out of the plane of the circle, ſo that the rectangle con⯑tained under the parts between the point E and the circle, and between the ſame point E and ſome other point F, may always be of a certain given magnitude; then the locus of all the points F will alſo be a circle, cutting the former circle in the two points where the lines drawn from the given point E, to the ſeveral points in the circumference of the firſt circle, change from the convex to the concave ſide of the circumfer⯑ence. And the conſtant quantity, to which the rectangle of the parts is always equal, is equal to the ſquare of the line drawn from the given point E to either of the ſaid two points of interſection.
And thus the loci of the extremes of all ſuch lines, are circles.
To place a given ſphere, and a given oblique cone, in ſuch poſitions, that their mutual ſections ſhall be circles.
Let V be the vertex, VB the leaſt ſide, and VD the greateſt ſide of the cone. In the plane of the triangle VBD it is evident will be found the center of the ſphere. Parallel to BD draw Aa the diameter of a circular ſection of the cone, ſo that it be not greater than the diameter of the ſphere. Biſect Aa with the perpendicular EC; with the center A and ra⯑dius of the ſphere, cut EC in C, which will be the center of the ſphere; from which therefore deſcribe a great circle of it cutting the ſides of the cone in the points S, s, A, a : ſo ſhall Ss and Aa be the diameters of circular ſections which are common to both the ſphere and cone.
[92]NOTE. The ſubſtance of the above propoſitions was drawn up ſeve⯑ral years ago. And Mr. Bonnycaſtle and Mr. George Sanderſon have this day ſhewn me the ſolution of a queſtion in the London Magazine for April 1777, in which a ſimilar ſection of a ſphere with a cone, is proved to be a circle, and which I had never ſeen before. Nor do I know of any other writings on the ſame ſubject.
July 29, 1785.
ART. 1. IN the year 1774 was publiſhed a pamphlet in octavo, with this title, A Diſſertation on the Geometrical Analyſis of the Antients. With a Collection of Theorems and Problems, without Solu⯑tions, for the Exerciſe of Young Students. This pamphlet was anony⯑mous; it was however well known to myſelf and ſeveral other perſons, that the author of it was the late Mr. John Lawſon, B. D. rector of Swanſcombe in Kent, an ingenious and learned geometrician, and, what is ſtill more eſtimable, a moſt worthy and good man; one in whoſe heart was found no guile, and whoſe pure integrity, joined to the moſt amiable ſimplicity of manners, and ſweetneſs of temper, gained him the affection and reſpect of all who had the happineſs to be acquainted with him. His collection of problems in that pamphlet concluded with this ſingular one, "To divide a circle into any number of parts, which ſhall be as well equal in area as in circumference.—N. B. This may ſeem a paradox, however it may be effected in a manner ſtrictly geo⯑metrical." The ſolution of this ſeeming paradox he reſerved to him⯑ſelf, as far as I know. I fell upon the diſcovery however ſoon after; and other perſons might do the ſame. My reſolution of it was pub⯑liſhed in an account which I gave of the pamphlet in the Critical Review for 1775, vol. xl. and which the author informed me was on [94]the ſame principle as his own. This account is in page 21 of that volume, and in the following words:
2. "We have no doubt but that our mathematical readers will agree with us in allowing the truth of the author's remark concerning the ſeeming paradox of this problem; becauſe there is no geometrical method of dividing the circumference of a circle into any propoſed number of parts taken at pleaſure, and it does not readily appear that there can be any othermethod of reſolving the problem, than by draw⯑ing radii to the points of equal diviſion in the circumference. However another method there is, and that ſtrictly geometrical, which is as follows.
"Divide the diameter AB of the given circle into as many equal parts as the circle itſelf is to be divided into, at the points C, D, E, &c. Then on the diameters AC, AD, AE, &c. as alſo on BE, BD, BC, &c. deſcribe ſemicircles, as in the annexed figure: and they will divide the whole circle as required.
"For, the ſeveral diameters being in arithmetical progreſſion, of which the common difference is equal to the leaſt of them, and the dia⯑meters of circles being as their circumferences, theſe will alſo be in arithmetical progreſſion. But, in ſuch a progreſſion, the ſum of the ex⯑tremes is equal to the ſum of each two terms equally diſtant from them; therefore the ſum of the circumferences on AC and CB, is equal to the ſum of thoſe on AD and DB, and of thoſe on AE and EB, &c. and each ſum equal to the ſemi-circumference of the given circle on the diameter AB. Therefore all the parts have equal perimeters, and each is equal to the circumference of the propoſed circle. Which ſatisfies one of the conditions in the problem.
[95]"Again, the ſame diameters being as the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. and the areas of circles being as the ſquares of their diameters, the ſemicircles will be as the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, &c. and conſequently the differences between all the adjacent ſemicircles are as the terms of the arithmetical progreſſion 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. and here again the ſums of the extremes, and of every two equidiſtant means, make up the ſeve⯑ral equal parts of the circle. Which is the other condition."
3. But this ſubject admits of a more geometrical form, and is capa⯑ble of being rendered very general and extenſive, and is moreover very fruitful in curious conſequences. For firſt, in whatever ratio the whole diameter is divided, whether into equal or unequal parts, and whatever be the number of the parts, the peri⯑meters of the ſpaces will ſtill be equal. For ſince circumferences of circles are always as their diameters, and becauſe AB and AD + DB and AC + CB are all equal, therefore the ſemi-circum⯑ferences c and b + d and a + e are all equal, and conſtant, whatever be the ratio of the parts AD, DC, CB, of the diame⯑ter. We ſhall preſently find too that the ſpaces TV, RS, and PQ, will be univerſally as the ſame parts AD, DC, CB, of the diameter.
4. The ſemicircles having been deſcribed as before mentioned, erect CE perpendicular to AB, and join BE. Then I ſay, the circle on the diameter BE, will be equal to the ſpace PQ. For, join AE. [96]Now the ſpace P = ſemicircle on AB − ſemicircle on AC: but the ſemicir. on AB = ſemicir. on AE + ſemicir. on BE, and the ſemicir. on AC = ſemicir. on AE − ſemicir. on CE, theref. ſemic. AB − ſemic. AC = ſemic. BE + ſemicir. CE, that is the ſpace P is = ſemic. BE + ſemicir. CE; to each of theſe add the ſpace Q, or the ſemicircle on BC, then P + Q = ſemic. BE + ſemic. CE + ſemic. BC, that is P + Q = double the ſemic. BE, or = the whole circle on BE.
5. In like manner, the two ſpaces PQ and RS together, or the whole ſpace PQRS, is equal to the circle on the diameter BF. And therefore the ſpace RS alone, is equal to the difference, or the circle on BF minus the circle on BE.
6. But, circles being as the ſquares of their diameters, BE2, BF2, and theſe again being as the parts or lines BC, BD, therefore the ſpaces PQ, PQRS, RS, TV, are reſpectively as the lines BC, BD, CD, AD, And if BC be equal to CD, then will PQ be equal to RS, as in the firſt or ſimpleſt caſe.
7. Hence, to find a circle equal to the ſpace RS, where the points D and C are taken at random: From either end of the diameter, as A, take AG equal to DC, erect GH perpendicular to AB, and join AH; then the circle on AH will be equal to the ſpace RS. For, the ſpace PQ: the ſpace RS ∷ BC ∶ CD or AG, that is as BE2: AH2 the ſquares of the diameters, or as the circle on BE to the cir⯑cle on AH; but the circle on BE is equal to the ſpace PQ, and therefore the circle on AH is equal to the ſpace RS.
8. Hence, to divide a circle in this manner, into any number of parts, that ſhall be in any ratios to one another: Divide the diameter [97]into as many parts, at the points D, C, &c. and in the ſame ratios as thoſe propoſed; then on the ſeveral diſtances of theſe points from the two ends A and B, as diameters, deſcribe the alternate ſemicircles on the different ſides of the whole diameter AB: and they will divide the whole circle in the manner propoſed. That is, the ſpaces TV, RS, PQ, will be as the lines AD, DC, CB.
9. But theſe properties are not confined to the circle alone, but are to be found alſo in the ellipſe, as the genus of which the circle is only a ſpecies. For if the annexed figure be an ellipſe deſcribed on the axis AB, the area of which is, in like manner, divided by ſimilar ſemiellipſes, deſcribed on AD, AC, BC, BD, as axes, all the ſemiperimeters f, ae, bd, c, will be equal to one another, for the ſame reaſon as before in Art. 3, namely, becauſe the peripheries of ellipſes are as their diameters. And the ſame property would ſtill hold good, if AB were any other diameter of the ellipſe, inſtead of the axis; deſcribing upon the parts of it ſemiellipſes which ſhall be ſimilar to thoſe into which the diameter AB divides the given ellipſe.
10. And, if a circle be deſcribed about the ellipſe, on the diame⯑ter AB, and lines be drawn ſimilar to thoſe in the ſecond figure; then, by a proceſs the very ſame as in Art. 4, et ſeq. ſubſtituting only ſemiellipſe for ſemicircle, it is found that the ſpace
or to the difference of the ellipſes on BF and BE; alſo the elliptic ſpaces PQ, PQRS, RS, TV, are reſpectively as the lines BC, BD, DC, AD, [98]the ſame ratio as the circular ſpaces. And hence an ellipſe is divided into any number of parts, in any aſſigned ratios, in the ſame manner as the circle is divided, namely, dividing the axis, or any diameter in the ſame manner, and on the parts deſcribing ſimilar ſemi⯑ellipſes.
Sect. 1. AT Woolwich in the year 1775, in conjunction with ſome able officers of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, and other ingenious gentlemen, I firſt inſtituted a courſe of experiments on fired gunpowder and cannon balls. My account of them was preſented to the Royal Society, who honoured it with the gift of the annual gold medal, and printed it in the Philoſophical Tranſactions for the year 1778. The object of thoſe experiments, was the determination of the actual velocities with which balls are impelled from given pieces of cannon, when fired with given charges of powder. They were made according to the method invented by the very ingenious Mr. Robins, and de⯑ſcribed in his treatiſe on the new principles of gunnery, of which an account was printed in the Philoſophical Tranſactions for the year 1743. Before the diſcoveries and inventions of that gentleman, very little progreſs had been made in the true theory of military projectiles. His book however contained ſuch important diſcoveries, that it was ſoon tranſlated into ſeveral of the languages on the continent, and the late ſamous Mr. L. Euler honoured it with a very learned and extenſive commentary, in his tranſlation of it into the German language. That [100]part of Mr. Robins's book has always been much admired, which re⯑lates to the experimental method of aſcertaining the actual velocities of ſhot, and in imitation of which, but on a large ſcale, thoſe experiments were made which were deſcribed in my paper. Experiments in the manner of Mr. Robins were generally repeated by his commentators, and others, with univerſal ſatisfaction; the method being ſo juſt in theory, ſo ſimple in practice, and altogether ſo ingenious, that it imme⯑diately gave the fulleſt conviction of its excellence, and the eminent abilities of the inventor. The uſe which our author made of his inven⯑tion, was to obtain the real velocities of bullets experimentally, that he might compare them with thoſe which he had computed a priori from a new theory of gunnery which he had invented, in order to verify the principles on which it was founded. The ſucceſs was fully anſwerable to his expectations, and left no doubt of the truth of his theory, at leaſt when applied to ſuch pieces and bullets as he had uſed. Theſe however were but ſmall, being only muſket balls of about an ounce weight: for, on account of the great ſize of the machinery neceſſary for ſuch experiments, Mr. Robins, and other ingenious gentlemen, have not ventured to ex⯑tend their practice beyond bullets of that kind, but contented them⯑ſelves with ardently wiſhing for experiments to be made in a ſimilar manner with balls of a larger ſort. By the experiments deſcribed in my paper therefore I endeavoured, in ſome degree, to ſupply that de⯑fect, having uſed cannon balls of above twenty times the ſize, or from one pound to near three pounds weight. Thoſe are the only experi⯑ments, that I know of, which have been made in that way with can⯑non balls, although the concluſions to be deduced from ſuch a courſe, are of the greateſt importance in thoſe parts of natural philoſophy which are connected with the effects of fired gunpowder: nor do I know of any other practical method beſides that above, of aſcertaining the initial velocities of military projectiles within any tolerable degree of the truth; except that of the recoil of the gun, hung on an axis in the ſame manner as the pendulum; which was alſo firſt pointed out and uſed by Mr. Robins, and which has lately been practiſed alſo by Benjamin [101]Thompſon, Eſq. in his very ingenious and accurate ſet of experiments with muſket balls, deſcribed in his paper in the Philoſophical Tranſ⯑actions for the year 1781. The knowledge of this velocity is of the greateſt conſequence in gunnery: by means of it, together with the law of the reſiſtance of the medium, every thing is determinable which re⯑lates to that buſineſs; for, as I remarked in the paper above-mentioned on my firſt experiments, it gives us the law relative to the different quantities of powder, to the different weights of balls, and to the dif⯑ferent lengths and ſizes of guns, and it is alſo an excellent method of trying the ſtrength of different ſorts of powder. Beſide theſe, there does not ſeem to be any thing wanting to anſwer every inquiry that can be made concerning the flight and ranges of ſhot, except the effects ariſing from the reſiſtance of the medium.
2. In that courſe of experiments were compared the effects of differ⯑ent quantities of powder, from two to eight ounces; the effects of different weights of ſhot; and the effects of different ſizes of ſhot, or different degrees of windage, which is the difference between the dia⯑meter of the ſhot and the diameter of the bore; all of which were found to obſerve certain regular and conſtant laws, as far as the experi⯑ments were carried. And at the end of each day's experiments, the deductions and concluſions were made, and the reaſons clearly pointed out why ſome caſes of velocity differ from others, as they properly and regularly ought to do. So that I am ſurprized how they could be miſ⯑underſtood by Mr. Templehof, captain in the Pruſſian artillery, when ſpeaking of the irregularities in ſuch experiments, he ſays, (page 126 of Le Bombardier Pruſſien, printed at Berlin, 1781) "La meme choſe arriva a Mr. Hutton, il la trouva de 626 pieds, & le jour ſuivant de 973 pieds, tout les circonſtances étant d'ailleurs égales:" which laſt words ſhew that Mr. T. had either miſunderſtood, or had not read the reaſon, which is a very ſufficient one, for this remarkable difference: it is expreſsly remarked in page 71 of my paper in the Philoſophical [102]Tranſactions, that all the circumſtances were not the ſame, but that the one ball was much ſmaller than the other, and that it had the leſs de⯑gree of velocity, 626 feet, becauſe of the greater loſs of the elaſtic fluid by the windage in the caſe of the ſmaller ball. On the contrary, the velocities in thoſe experiments were even more uniform and ſimilar thancould be expected in ſuch large machinery, and in a firſt attempt of the kind too. And from the whole, the following important con⯑cluſions were fairly drawn and ſtated, viz.
"(1.) And firſt, it is made evident by theſe experiments, that pow⯑der fires almoſt inſtantaneouſly, ſeeing that almoſt the whole of the charge fires, though the time be much diminiſhed.
"(2.) The velocities communicated to ſhot of the ſame weight, with different quantities of powder, are nearly in the ſubduplicate ratio of thoſe quantities. A very ſmall variation, in defect, taking place when the quantities of powder become great.
"(3.) And when ſhot of different weights are fired with the ſame quantity of powder, the velocities communicated to them, are nearly in the reciprocal ſub-duplicate ratio of their weights.
"(4.) So that, univerſally, ſhot which are of different weights, and impelled by the firing of different quantities of powder, acquire velo⯑cities which are directly as the ſquare roots of the quantities of powder, and inverſely as the ſquare roots of the weights of the ſhot, nearly.
"(5.) It would therefore be a great improvement in artillery, to make uſe of ſhot of a long form, or of heavier matter; for thus the mo⯑mentum of a ſhot, when fired with the ſame weight of powder, would be increaſed in the ratio of the ſquare root of the weight of the ſhot.
[103]"(6.) It would alſo be an improvement, to diminiſh the windage: for, by ſo doing, one third or more of the quantity of powder might be ſaved.
"(7.) When the improvements mentioned in the laſt two articles are conſidered as both taking place, it is evident that about half the quantity of powder might be ſaved; which is a very conſiderable ob⯑ject. But important as this ſaving may be, it ſeems to be ſtill ex⯑ceeded by that of the guns: for thus a ſmall gun may be made to have the effect and execution of one of two or three times its ſize in the preſent way, by diſcharging a long ſhot of two or three times the weight of its natural ball, or round ſhot: and thus a ſmall ſhip might diſcharge ſhot as heavy as thoſe of the greateſt now made uſe of.
"Finally, as the above experiments exhibit the regulations with re⯑gard to the weight of powder and balls, when fired from the ſame piece of ordnance; ſo by making ſimilar experiments with a gun, varied in its length, by cutting off from it a certain part before each courſe of experiments, the effects and general rules for the different lengths of guns, may be certainly determined by them. In ſhort, the principles on which theſe experiments were made, are ſo fruitful in conſequences, that, in conjunction with the effects of the reſiſtance of the medium, they ſeem to be ſufficient for anſwering all the inquiries of the ſpeculative philoſopher, as well as thoſe of the practical artilleriſt."
3. Such then was the ſtate of the firſt ſet of experiments with cannon balls in the year 1775, and ſuch were the probable advantages to be derived from them. I do not however know that any uſe has hitherto been made of them by authority for the public ſervice; unleſs perhaps we are to except the inſtance of Carronades, a ſpecies of ordnance which hath ſince been invented, and in ſome degree adopted in the public [104]ſervice; for in this inſtance the proprietors of thoſe pieces, by availing themſelves of the circumſtances of large balls, and very ſmall windage, with ſmall charges of powder, have been able to produce very conſider⯑able and uſeful effects with thoſe light pieces, at a very ſmall expence. Or perhaps thoſe experiments were too much limited, and of too pri⯑vate a nature, to merit a more general notice. Be that however as it may, the preſent additional courſe, which is to make the ſubject of this tract, will have very great advantages over the former, both in point of extent, variety, improvements in machinery, and in authority. His Grace the Duke of Richmond, the preſent maſter-general of the ordnance, in his indefatigable endeavours for the good of the public ſervice, was pleaſed to order this extenſive courſe of experiments, and to give directions for providing guns, and machinery, and every thing compleat and fitting for the proper execution of them.
4. This courſe of experiments has been carried on under the direction of Major Blomefield, inſpector of artillery, an officer of great profeſ⯑ſional merit, and whoſe ingenious contrivances in the machinery do him great credit. It has been our employment for three ſucceſſive ſummers, namely, thoſe of the years 1783, 1784, and 1785; and indeed it might be continued ſtill much longer, either by extending it to more objects, or to more repetitions of experiments for the ſame object.
5. The objects of this courſe have been various. But the principal articles of it as follows:
6. THE effects of moſt of the circumſtances laſt mentioned are determined by the actual velocity with which the ball is projected from the mouth of the piece. Therefore the primary object of the experi⯑ments is, to diſcover that velocity in all caſes, and eſpecially in ſuch as uſually occur in the common practice of artillery. This velocity is very great; from one thouſand to two thouſand feet or more, in a ſecond of time. For conveniently eſtimating ſo great a velocity, the firſt thing neceſſary is, to reduce it, in ſome known proportion, to a ſmall one. [106]Which we may conceive to be effected in this manner: ſuppoſe the ball, projected with a great velocity, to ſtrike ſome very heavy body, ſuch as a large block of wood, from which it will not rebound, ſo that after the ſtroke they may both proceed forward together with a common velocity. By this means, it is obvious that the original velocity of the ball may be reduced in any proportion, or to any ſlow velocity which may con⯑veniently be meaſured, by making the body ſtruck to be ſufficiently large: for it is well known that the common velocity, with which the ball and the block of wood would move on together after the ſtroke, bears to the original velocity of the ball before the ſtroke, the ſame ratio which the weight of the ball has to that of the ball and block together. Thus then velocities of one thouſand feet in a ſecond are eaſily reduced to thoſe of two or three feet only: which ſmall velocity being meaſured by any convenient means, let the number denoting it be increaſed in the ratio of the weight of the ball to the weight of the ball and block together, and the original velocity of the ball itſelf will thereby be obtained.
7. Now this reduced velocity is rendered eaſy to be meaſured by a very ſimple and curious contrivance, of Mr. Robins, which is this: the block of wood, which is ſtruck by the ball, inſtead of being left at liberty to move ſtraight forward in the direction of the motion of the ball, is ſuſpended, like the weight of the vibrating pendulum of a clock, by a ſtrong iron ſtem, having a horizontal axis at the top, on the ends of which it vibrates freely when ſtruck by the ball. The con⯑ſequence of this ſimple contrivance is evident: this large balliſtic pen⯑dulum, after being ſtruck by the ball, will be penetrated by it to a ſmall depth, and it will then ſwing round its axis, deſcribing an arch, which will be greater or leſs according to the force of the blow ſtruck; and from the magnitude of the arch deſcribed by the vibrating pendu⯑lum, the velocity of any point of the pendulum can be eaſily computed: for a body acquires the ſame velocity by falling from the ſame height, [107]whether it deſcend perpendicularly down, or otherwiſe; therefore, ha⯑ving given the length of the arc deſcribed by the center of oſcillation, and its radius, the verſed ſine becomes known, which is the height per⯑pendicularly deſcended by that point of the pendulum. The height de⯑ſcended being thus known, the velocity acquired in falling through that height becomes known alſo, from the common rules for the deſcent of bodies by the force of gravity. And the velocity of this center, thus obtained, is to be eſteemed the velocity of the whole pendulum itſelf: which being now given, that of the ball before the ſtroke becomes known, from the given weights of the ball and pendulum. Thus then the determination of the very great velocity of the ball is reduced to the menſuration of the magnitude of the arch deſcribed by the pendu⯑lum, in conſequence of the blow ſtruck.
8. Now this arch may be determined in various ways: in the follow⯑ing experiments it was aſcertained by meaſuring the length of its chord, which is the moſt uſeful line about it for making the calculation by; and this chord was meaſured ſometimes by means of a piece of tape or nar⯑row ribbon, the one end of which was faſtened to the bottom of the pendulum, and the reſt of it made to ſlide through a ſmall machine con⯑trived for the purpoſe; and ſometimes it was meaſured by the trace of the fine point of a ſtylette in the bottom of the pendulum, made in an arch concentric with the axis, and covered with a compoſition of a pro⯑per conſiſtence; which will be particularly deſcribed hereafter.
9. Another ſimilar method of meaſuring the great velocity of the ball is, by obſerving the arch of recoil of the gun, when it is hung alſo after the manner of a pendulum: for, by loading the gun with adventitious weight, it may be made ſo heavy as to ſwing any convenient extent of arch we pleaſe, which arch it is evident will be greater or leſs according to the velocity of the ball, or force of the inſlamed powder, ſince action and re-action are equal and contrary; that is, the velocity of the ball will [108]be greater than the velocity of the center of oſcillation of the gun, in the ſame proportion as the weight of the gun exceeds the weight of the ball. And therefore, if the velocity of the center of oſcillation of the gun be computed, from the chord of the arc deſcribed by it in the recoil, the velocity of the ball will be found by this proportion; namely, as the weight of the ball is to the weight of the gun, ſo is the velocity of the gun to the velocity of the ball: that is, if the weight of powder had no effect on the recoil.
10. This deſcription may ſuffice to convey a general idea of the na⯑ture and principles of the experiment, for determining the velocity with which a ball is projected, by any charge of powder, from a piece of ord⯑nance. But it is to be obſerved that, beſides the center of oſcillation, and the weights of the ball and pendulum, or gun, the effect of the blow depends alſo on the place of the center of gravity in the pendulum or gun, and that of the point ſtruck, or the place where the force is ex⯑erted; for it is evident that the arch of vibration will be greater or leſs according to the ſituation of theſe two points alſo. It will therefore be neceſſary now to give a more particular deſcription of the machinery, and of the methods of finding the aforeſaid requiſites; and then we ſhall inveſtigate our general rules for determining the velocity of the ball, in all caſes, from them and the chord of the arch of vibration, either of the pendulum or gun.
11. FIVE very fine braſs one-pounder guns were caſt and pre⯑pared, in Woolwich Warren, for theſe experiments, and bored as true as poſſible; the common diameter of their bore being 2 inches and 2/100 [109]parts of an inch. Theſe five guns are exactly repreſented in plate 1, with the ſcale of their dimenſions, by which they were drawn. Three of theſe, namely, no. 1, 2, 3, are nearly of the ſame weight, but of the reſpective lengths of 15, 20, and 30 calibers; in order to aſcertain the effect of different lengths of bore, with the ſame weight of gun, powder, and ball. The other two, no. 4 and 5, were heavier, and of 40 calibers in length; to obtain the effects of the longeſt pieces. No. 5 was more expreſſly to ſhew the effect of different lengths of the ſame gun: and for this purpoſe, it was to be fired a ſufficient number of rounds with its whole length; and then to be ſucceſſively diminiſhed, by ſawing off it 6 or 12 inches at a time, till it ſhould be all cut away: firing a num⯑ber of rounds with it at each length. And for the convenience of ſuſ⯑pending this gun near its center of gravity for all the different lengths of it, a long thin ſlip was caſt with it, extending along the under ſide of it, from the breech to almoſt the middle of its length. By perforating this ſlip through with holes immediately under the center of gravity for each length, after being cut, a bolt was to paſs through the hole, on which the gun might be ſuſpended. The other guns were ſlung by their trunnions.
The exact weight and dimenſions of all theſe guns are exhibited in the following table.
| Length of the | Diameter at the | Diam. of the bore | Weight | |||||
| No. of the gun | Piece, in | Bore, in | breech | muzzle | ||||
| calib. | inch | calib. | inch | inch | inch | inch | lb. | |
| 1 | 15 | 30.3 | 13.91 | 28.2 | 7.85 | 6.88 | 2.02 | 290 |
| 2 | 19.98 | 40.35 | 18.86 | 38.1 | 7.43 | 5.92 | 2.02 | 289 |
| 3 | 29.2 | 60 | 28.4 | 57.37 | 6.73 | 4.68 | 2.02 | 295 |
| 4 | 41.04 | 82.9 | 39.55 | 79.9 | 6.1 | 4.31 | 2.02 | 378 |
| 5 | 40.84 | 82.5 | 39.83 | 80.47 | 6.47 | 4 | 2.02 | 502 |
[110]12. As theſe guns were to be ſlung by their trunnions, to obſerve the relation between the velocity of the ball and the arch of recoil deſcribed by the gun, vibrating on an axis, certain leaden weights were caſt, to fit on very exactly about the trunnions of the gun, to render it ſo heavy, as that the arch of recoil might not be inconveniently great. Theſe conſiſted, firſt of central pieces to fit the trunnions, and then over them cylindrical rings of different ſizes, both turned to fit exactly; the whole being held firmly together by iron bolts put into holes bored through all the pieces. Theſe were alſo of different ſizes, ſo as to bring all the guns exactly up to the ſame weight; the whole weight of each, toge⯑ther with 188 lb weight of iron, about the ſtem and machine, by which the gun was ſlung, was 917 lb; with which weight moſt of the experi⯑ments were made: notice being always taken when any alteration was made in the weights, as well as in the other circumſtances. The com⯑mon weight of 917 lb is made up of the different guns and leads, and the common weight of iron, as below:
| No. | Guns | Leads | Iron | Total |
| 1 | 290 + | 439 + | 188 = | 917 |
| 2 | 289 + | 440 + | 188 = | 917 |
| 3 | 295 + | 434 + | 188 = | 917 |
| 4 | 378 + | 351 + | 188 = | 917 |
| 5 | 502 + | 227 + | 188 = | 917 |
Theſe were the weights at firſt; but ſoon after, the braces, or ſtrengthen⯑ing rods of the gun frame, were made longer and thicker, which added 11 lb to their weights, and then the whole weight of each was 928 lb.
13. In theſe experiments, the velocity of the ball, by which the force of the powder is determined, was to be meaſured both by the balliſtic pendulum into which the ball was fired, and by the arch of recoil of the gun, which was hung on an axis by an iron ſtem, after the ſame [111]manner as the pendulum itſelf, and the arcs vibrated in both caſes mea⯑ſured in the ſame way. Plates 11 and 111 contain general repreſenta⯑tions of the machinery of both; namely, a ſide view and a front view of each, as they hung by their ſtem and axis on the wooden ſupports. In plate 11, fig. 1 is the ſide-view of the pendulum, and fig. 2 the ſide⯑view of the gun, as ſlung in their frames. And in plate 111, fig. 1 and 2 are the front-views of the ſame.
14. In fig. 1, of both plates, A is the pendulous block of wood, into which the balls are fired, ſtrongly bound with thick bars of iron, and hung by a ſtrong iron ſtem, which is connected by an axis at top; the whole being firmly braced together by croſſing diagonal rods of iron. The cylin⯑drical ends of the axis, both in the gun and pendulum, were at firſt placed to turn upon ſmooth flat plate-iron ſurfaces, having perpendicular pins put in before and behind the ſides of the axis, to keep it in its place, and prevent it from ſlipping backwards and forwards. But, this method being attended with too much friction, the ends of the axis were ſup⯑ported and made to roll upon curved pieces, having the convexity up⯑wards, and the pins, before and behind the axis, ſet ſo as not quite to touch it; which left a ſmall degree of play to the axis, and made the fric⯑tion leſs than before. But, ſtill farther to diminiſh the friction, the lower ſide of the ends of the axis was ſharpened off a little, ſomething like the axis of a ſcale beam, and made to turn in hollow grooves, which were rounded down at both ends, and ſtanding higher in the middle, like the curvature of a bent cylinder; by which means the edge of the axis touched the grooves, not in a line, but in one point only; when it vi⯑brated with very great freedom, having an almoſt imperceptible degree of friction. The ſeveral times and occaſions when theſe, and other im⯑provements, were introduced and uſed, will be more particularly noticed in the journal of the experiments.
[112]15. At firſt, the chord of the arc, of vibration and recoil, was meaſured by means of a prepared narrow tape, divided into inches and tenths, as before. A new contrivance of machinery was however made for it. From the bottom of the pendulum, or gun-frame, proceeded a tongue of iron, which was raiſed or lowered by means of a ſcrew at B; this was cloven at the bottom C, to receive the end of the tape, and the lips then pinched together by a ſcrew, which held the tape faſt. Immediately below this the tape was paſſed between two ſlips of iron, which could be brought to any degree of nearneſs by two ſcrews; theſe pieces were made to ſlide vertically up and down a groove in a heavy block of wood, and fixed at any height by a ſcrew D. One of theſe latter pieces was extended out a conſiderable length, to prevent the tape from getting over its ends, and entangling in the returns of the vibrations. The extent of tape drawn out in a vibration, it is evident, is the chord of the arc deſcribed, and counted in inches and tenths, to the radius meaſured from the middle of the axis to the bottom of the tongue.
16. This method however was found to be attended with much trouble, and many inconveniences, as well as doubts and uncertainty ſometimes. For which reaſons we afterwards changed this method of meaſuring the chord of vibration for another, which anſwered much bet⯑ter in every reſpect. This conſiſted in a block of wood, having its upper ſurface EF formed into a circular arc, whoſe center was in the middle of the axis, and conſequently its radius equal to the length from the axis to the upper ſurface of the block. In the middle of this arch was made a ſhallow groove of 3 or 4 inches broad, running along the middle, through the whole length of the arch. This groove was filled with a compoſition of ſoft-ſoap and wax, of about the conſiſtence of honey, or a little firmer, and its upper ſide ſmoothed off even with the general ſur⯑face of the broad arch. A ſharp ſpear or ſtylette then proceeded from the bottom of the pendulum or gun-frame, and ſo low as juſt to enter and ſcratch along the ſurface of the compoſition in the groove, without [113]having any ſenſible effect in retarding the motion of the body. The trace remaining, the extent of it could eaſily be meaſured. This meaſurement was effected in the following manner:—A line of chords was laid down upon the upper ſurface of the wooden arch, on each ſide of the groove, and the diviſions marked with lines on a ground of white paint: the edge of a ſtraight ruler being then laid acroſs by the cor⯑reſponding diviſions, juſt to touch the fartheſt extent of the trace in the compoſition, gave the length of the chord as marked on the arch. To make the computations by the rule for the velocity eaſier, the divi⯑ſions on the chords were made exact thouſandth parts of the radius, which ſaved the trouble of dividing by the radius at every operation. The manner in which I conſtructed this line of chords on the face of the arch was this: The radius was made juſt 10 feet; I therefore pre⯑pared a ſmooth and ſtraight deal rod, upon which I ſet off 10 feet; I then divided each foot into 10 equal parts, and each of theſe into 10 parts again; by which means the whole rod or radius was divided into 1000 equal parts, being 100th parts of a foot. I then transferred the diviſions of the rod to the face of the arch in this manner, namely; the firſt divi⯑ſion of the rod was applied to the ſide of the arch at the beginning of it, and made to turn round there as a center; then, in that poſition, the rod, when turned vertically round that point, always touched the ſide of the arch, and the diviſions of it were marked on the edge of the arch, ſucceſſively as they came into a coincidence with it.
17. In fig. 2, plate 11, G ſhews the leaden weights placed about the trunnions; H a ſcrew for raiſing or depreſſing the breech of the gun, by means of the piece 1 embracing the caſcable, and moveable along the perpendicular arm KL, to ſuit the different lengths of guns, and held to it by a ſcrew paſſing through the ſlit made along it.
The machines and operations for finding the ranges will be deſcribed hereafter.
18. It being neceſſary to know the poſition of the centers of gravity and oſcillation, without which the velocity cannot be computed; theſe were commonly determined every day as follows:
The center of gravity was found by one or both of theſe two methods. Firſt, a triangular priſm of iron AB, being placed on the ground with one edge up⯑wards, the pendulum or gun-frame was laid acroſs it, and moved backward or forward, on the ſtem or block, as the caſe required, till the two parts exactly balanced each other in a horizontal poſition. Then, as it lay, the diſtance was meaſured from the middle of the axis to the part which reſted on the edge of the priſm, or the place of the center of gravity, which is the diſtance g of that center below the axis.
19. The other method is this: The ends of the axis being ſupported on fixed uprights, and a chord faſtened to the lower end of the block, or of the gun frame, and paſſed over a pulley at P, different weights w were faſtened to the other end of it, till the body was brought to a horizontal poſition. Then, taking alſo the whole weight of the body, and its length from the axis to the bottom, where the chord was fixed, the place of the center of gravity is found by this proportion:
[115]Either of theſe two methods gave the place of the center of gravity ſuf⯑ficiently exact; but the agreement of the reſults of both of them was ſtill more ſatisfactory.
20. To find the center of oſcillation, the balliſtic pendulum, or the gun, was hung up by its axis in its place, and then made to vibrate in ſmall arcs, for 1 minute, or 2, or 5, or 10 minutes; the more the better; as determined either by a half ſecond pendulum, or a ſtop watch, or a peculiar time-piece, meaſuring the time to 40th parts of a ſecond; and the number of vibrations performed in that time carefully counted. Having thus obtained the time anſwering to a certain number of vibra⯑tions, the center of oſcillation is eaſily found: for if n denote the number of vibrations made in s ſeconds, and l the length of the ſecond pendulum, then it is well known that n2 ∶ s2 ∷ l ∶ s2l / n2 the diſtance from the axis of motion to the center of oſcillation. And here if s be 60 ſeconds, or one minute, and n the number of vibrations performed in 1 minute, as found by dividing the whole number of vibrations, actually performed, by the whole number of minutes; then is n2 ∶ 602 ∷ l ∶ 3600l/nn the diſtance to the center of oſcillation. But, by the beſt obſervations on the vibration of pendulums, it is found that l = 39⅛ inches is the length of the ſecond pendulum for the latitude of London, or of Woolwich; and therefore [...] or 140850/nn = 0, will be the diſtance, in inches, or = 11737.5/nn in feet, of the center of oſcillation below the axis. And by this rule the place of that center was found for each day of the experiments.
21. Having deſcribed the methods of obtaining the neceſſary dimen⯑ſions and weights, I proceed now to the inveſtigation of the theorem by [116]which the velocity of the ball is to be computed: and firſt by means of the pendulum.
The ſeveral weights and meaſures being found, let b denote the weight of the ball, p the weight of the pendulum, g the diſtance to its center of gravity, o the diſtance to its center of oſcillation, i the diſtance to the point of impact, or point ſtruck, c the chord of the arch deſcribed by the pendulum, r its radius, or diſtance to the tape or arch, v the initial or original velocity of the ball.
Then, from the nature of oſcillatory motion, bii will expreſs the ſum of the forces of the ball acting at the diſtance i from the axis, and pgo the ſum of the forces of the pendulum, and conſequently pgo + bii the ſum for both the ball and pendulum together; and if each be multiplied by its velocity, biiv will be the quantity of motion of the ball, and (pgo + bii) × z the quantity for the pendulum and ball together; where z is the velocity of the point of impact. But theſe quantities of motion, before and after the blow, muſt be equal to each other, therefore (pgo + bii) × z = biiv, and conſequently z = biiv/pgo+bii is the velocity of the point of impact. Now becauſe of the acceſſion of the ball to the pendulum, the place of the center of oſcillation will be changed; and the diſtance y of the new or compound center of oſcillation will be found by dividing pgo + bii the ſum of the forces, by pg + bi the ſum of the mo⯑menta, that is y = pgo+bii/pg+bi is the diſtance of the new or compound center of oſcillation below the axis. Then, becauſe biiv/pgo+bii is the velocity of the point whoſe diſtance is i, by ſimilar figures we ſhall have this propor⯑tion, as i ∶ pgo+bii/pg+bi (or y) ∷ biiv/pgo+bii ∶ biv/pg+bi the velocity of this com⯑pound center of oſcillation.
[117]Again, by the property of the circle, 2r ∶ c ∷ c ∶ cc/2r, which will be the verſed ſine of the deſcribed arc, to the chord c and radius r; and hence, by ſimilar figures, r : y or pgo+bii/pg+bi ∷ cc/2r ∶ cc/2rr × pgo+bii/pg+bi the correſponding verſed ſine to the radius y, or the verſed ſine of the arc deſcribed by the compound center of oſcillation; which call v. Then, becauſe the velo⯑city loſt in aſcending through the circular arc, or gained in deſcending through the ſame, is equal to the velocity acquired in deſcending freely by gravity through its verſed ſine, or perpendicular height, therefore the velocity of this center of oſcillation will alſo be equal to the ve⯑locity generated by gravity in deſcending through the ſpace v or cc2rr × pgo+bii/pg+bi. But the ſpace deſcribed by gravity in one ſecond of time, in the latitude of London, is 16.09 feet, and the velocity ge⯑nerated in that time 32.18; therefore, by the nature of free deſcents, √ 16.09 ∶ √v ∷ 32.18 ∶ 5.6727c/r √ pgo+bii/pg+bi, the velocity of the ſame center of oſcillation, as deduced from the chord of the arc which is actually deſcribed.
Having thus obtained two different expreſſions for the velocity of this center, independent of each other, let an equation be made of them, and it will expreſs the relation of the ſeveral quantities in the queſtion: thus then we have biv/pg+bi = 5.6727c/r √ pgo+bii/pg+bi. And from this equation we get [...] the true expreſſion for the original velocity of the ball the moment before it ſtrikes the pendulum. And this theorem agrees with thoſe of Meſſrs. Euler and Antoni, and alſo with that of Mr. Robins nearly, for the ſame purpoſe, when his rule is corrected by the paragraph which was by miſtake omitted in his book when firſt publiſhed; which correction he himſelf gave in a paper in the Philoſophical Tranſactions for April 1743, and where he informs us that all the velocities of balls, mentioned in his book, except the firſt only, [118]were computed by the corrected rule. Though the editor of his works, publiſhed in 1761, has inadvertently neglected this correction, and printed his book without taking any notice of it. And that remark, had M. Euler obſerved it, might have ſaved him the trouble of many of his animadverſions on Mr. Robins's work.
22. But this theorem may be reduced to a form much more ſimple and fit for uſe, and yet be ſufficiently near the truth. Thus, let the root of the compound factor (pgo + bii) × (pg + bi) be extracted, and it will be equal to (pg + bi · o+i/20) × √0, within the 100000th part of the true value, in ſuch caſes as commonly happen in practice. But ſince bi · o+i/20, in our experiments, is uſually but about the 500th, or 600th, or 800th part of pg, and ſince bi differs from bi · o+i/20 only by about the 100th part of itſelf, therefore pg + bi is within the 50000th part of pg + bi · o+i/20. Conſequently v = 5.6727c · pg+bi/bir √o very nearly. Or, farther, if g be written for i in the laſt term bi, then finally v = 5.6727gc · p+b/bir √o; which is an eaſy theorem to be uſed on all occaſions; and being within the 5000th part of the true quantity, it will always give the velocity true within leſs than half a foot, even in the caſes of the greateſt velocity. Where it muſt be obſerved, that c, g, i, r, may be taken in any meaſures, either feet or inches, &c. provided they be but all of the ſame kind; but o muſt be in feet, becauſe the theorem is adapted to feet.
23. As the balls remain in the pendulum during the time of making one whole ſet of experiments, both its weight and the poſition of the centers of gravity and oſcillation will be changed by the addition of each ball which is lodged in the wood; and therefore p, g, o muſt be corrected after every ſhot, in the theorem for determining the velocity v. Now [119]the ſucceeding value of p is always p + b; or p is to be corrected by the continual addition of b: and the ſucceeding value of g is [...], or g + i−g/p b nearly; or g is corrected by adding always i−g/p b to the next preceding value of g: and laſtly, o is to be corrected by taking for its new values ſucceſſively [...], or by adding always [...], or i−o/p b nearly, to the preceding value of o: ſo that the three corrections are made by adding always,
That is, when b is very ſmall in reſpect of p.
24. But as the diſtance of the center of oſcillation o, whoſe ſquare root is concerned in the theorem for the velocity v, is found from the number of vibrations n performed by the pendulum; it will be better to ſubſtitute, in that theorem, the value of o in terms of n. Now by Art. 20, the value of o is 11737.5/nn feet, and conſequently √o = 108.3398/n; which value of √o being ſubſtituted for it in the theorem v = 5.6727gc × p+b/bir √o, it becomes v = 614.58gc × p+b/birn, or 59000/96 × p+b/birn gc, the ſimpleſt and eaſieſt formula for the velocity of the ball in feet: where c, g, i, r may be taken in any one and the ſame meaſure, either all inches, or all feet, or any other meaſure.
25. It will be neceſſary here to add a correction for n inſtead of that for o in Art. 23. Now, the correction for o being [...], and the [120]value of n = 375.3/√o inches, the correction for n will be [...] by ſubſtituting the value of o inſtead of it: Which correction is negative, or to be ſubtracted from the former value of n. The corrections for p and g being b and [...], as in Art. 23; which are both additive. But the ſigns of theſe quantities muſt be changed when b is negative.
26. Before we quit this rule, it may be neceſſary here to advert to three or four circumſtances which may ſeem to cauſe ſome ſmall error in the initial velocity, as determined by the formula in Art. 24. Theſe are the friction on the axis, the reſiſtance of the air to the back of the pendulum, the time which the ball employs in penetrating the wood of the pendulum, and the reſiſtance of the air to the ball in its paſſage be⯑tween the gun and the pendulum.
As to the firſt of theſe, namely, the friction on the axis, by which the extent of its vibration is ſomewhat diminiſhed; it may be obſerved, that the effect of this cauſe can never amount to a quantity conſiderable enough to be brought into account in our experiments; for, beſides that care was taken to render this friction as ſmall as poſſible, the effect of the ſmall part which does remain is nearly balanced by the effect it has on the number n of vibrations performed in a minute; for the friction on the axis will a little retard its motion, and cauſe its vibrations to be ſlower, and ſewer; ſo that c the length of a vibration, and n the number of vibrations, being both diminiſhed by this cauſe, nearly in an equal degree, and c being a multiplier, and n a diviſor, in our formula, it is [121]evident that the effect of the friction in the one caſe operates againſt that in the other, and that the difference of the two is the real diſ⯑turbing cauſe, and which therefore is either equal to nothing, or very nearly ſo.
27. The ſecond cauſe of error is the reſiſtance of the air againſt the back of the pendulum, by which its motion is ſomewhat impeded. This reſiſtance hinders the pendulum from vibrating ſo far, and deſcribing ſo large an arch, as it would do if there was no ſuch reſiſtance; therefore the chord of the arc which is actually deſcribed and meaſured, is leſs than it really ought to be; and conſequently the velocity of the ball, which is proportional to that chord, will be leſs than the real velocity of the ball at the moment it ſtrikes the pendulum. And although the pen⯑dulum be very heavy, and its motion but ſlow, and conſequently the reſiſtance of the air againſt it very ſmall, it will yet be proper to inveſti⯑gate the real effect of it, that we may be ſure whether it may ſafely be neglected or not.
In order to this, let the annexed figure repreſent the back of the pendulum, moving on its axis; and put p = weight of the pendulum, a = DE its breadth, r = AB the diſtance to the bottom, e = AC the diſtance to the top, x = AF any variable diſtance, g = diſtance of the center of gravity, o = diſtance of the center of oſcillation, v = velocity of the center of oſcillation, in any part of the vibration, h = 16.09 feet, the deſcent of gravity in 1 ſecond, c = the chord of the arc actually deſcribed by the center of oſcillation, and c = the chord which would be deſcribed by it if the air had no reſiſtance.
[122]Then o ∶ x ∷ v ∶ vx/o the velocity of the point F of the pendulum; and 4h2 ∶ h ∷ v2 x2/o2 ∶ v2 x2/4ho2 the height deſcended by gravity to generate the velocity vx/o. Now the reſiſtance of the air to the line DFE is equal to the preſſure of a column of air upon it, whoſe height is the ſame v2 x2/4ho2, and therefore that preſſure or weight is nav2 x2/4ho2, where n is the ſpecific gravity, or weight of one cubic meaſure of air, or n = 62½ / 850lb = 5/68lb. Hence then nav2 x2 x/4ho2 is the preſſure on DEed, and nav2 x3 x/4ho2 the momentum of the preſſure on the ſame De, or the fluxion of the momentum on the block of the pendulum; and the cor⯑rect fluent gives [...] for the momentum of the air on the whole pendulum, ſuppoſing that on the ſtem AC to be nothing, as it is nearly, both on account of its narrowneſs, and the diminution of the mo⯑mentum of the particles by their nearneſs to the axis. Put now A = the compound coefficient [...], ſo ſhall A v2 denote the momen⯑tum of the air on the back of the pendulum.
But the motion of the pendulum is alſo obſtructed by its own weight, as well as by the reſiſtance of the air; and that weight acts as if it were all concentered in the center of gravity, whoſe diſtance below the axis is g; therefore pg is its momentum in its natural or vertical direction, and pgs its momentum perpendicular to the motion of the pendulum, when s is the ſine of the angle which it makes at any time with the vertical poſition, to the radius 1. Hence pgs + Av2 is the momen⯑tum of both the reſiſtances together, namely that of the preſſure of the air, and of the weight of the pendulum. And conſequently pgs+Av2/pg = s + A / pg v2 is the real retarding force to the motion of the pendulum, at the center of oſcillation; which force call f.
[123]Now if z denote the arc deſcribed by the center of oſcillation, when its velocity is v, or z/o the arc whoſe fine is s; we ſhall have [...], and, by the doctrine of forces, [...].
But cc/2o is the verſed ſine or height of the whole arc whoſe chord is c, and [...] is the verſed ſine or height of the part whoſe ſine is os, therefore [...] is their difference, or the height of the remaining part, and is nearly equal to the height due to the velocity v; therefore [...] nearly. Then by ſubſtituting this for v2 in the value of vv̇, we have [...]; and the fluents give [...]; where Q is a conſtant quantity by which the fluent is to be corrected. Now, ſubſtituting v2 for v2, and o for s, their correſponding values at the commencement of motion, the above fluent becomes v2 = 4ho + Q; from which the former ſubtracted, gives [...]. And when v = o, or the pendulum is at the full extent of its aſcent, then [...], at which point os is the ſine of the whole arc whoſe chord is c, and conſequently [...].
[124]But the value of s being commonly ſmall in reſpect of c/o, we ſhall have theſe following values nearly true, namely, [...], [...], z = os + ⅙ os3, and 2o2−c2/2o2 z − os = − c2 s/2o + 2o2−c2/12o s3, which values, by ſubſtitution, give v2 = 2hc2/o + 16h2 oA / pq (c2 s/2o − 2o2−c2/12o s3).
But c2/2o is the verſed ſine or height to the chord c, and v2 = 4h · c2/2o = 2hc2/o the ſquare of the velocity due to that height; therefore 2hc2/o = 2hc2/o + 16h2 oA / pq (c2 s/2o − 2o2−c2/12o s3, and c2 = c2 + 8hoA / pq (c2 s/2 − 2o2−c2/12 s3), or c2 = c2 + 8hA / pq (c3/3 + c•/12o2), and c = c + 4c2 hA / 3pq nearly, or ſubſtituting for A, c = c + nac2/12pg · r4−c4/o2 = c (1 + nac/12pg · r4−e4/o2). So that the chord of the arc which is actually deſcribed, is to that which would be deſcribed if the air had no reſiſtance, as 1 is to 1 + nac/12pg · r4−e4/o2; and therefore nac/12pg · r4−e4/o2 is the part of the chord, and conſequently of the velocity, loſt by means of the reſiſtance of the air. And the proportion is the ſame for the chords deſcribed by the loweſt point, or any other point, of the pendulum.
[125]28. Now, to give an example, in numbers, of this effect of the reſiſtance of the air; the ordinary mean values of the literal quantities are as here below,
| namely, | therefore |
| p = 700 | nac = 25/102 |
| a = z | |
| r = 8½ | 12pg = 56000 |
| e = 6½ | r4 = 5220 |
| g = 6⅔ | e4 = 1785 |
| o = 7⅓ | r4 − e4 = 3435 |
| n = 5/68 | o2 = 484/9 |
| c = 1⅔ | nac/12pg · r4−e4/o2 = 1/3577 |
So that the part of the chord, or velocity, loſt by this cauſe, namely, the reſiſtance of the air on the back of the pendulum, is but about the 1/3577, or about the 1/4000 part of the whole; and therefore this effect ſcarcely ever amounts to ſo much as half a foot. Being indeed about ½ of a foot when the velocity of the ball is 2000 feet,
| ¼ | when | it is | 1000 |
| ⅜ | when | it is | 1500 |
and ſo on in proportion to the whole velocity of the ball.
And even this ſmall effect may be ſuppoſed to be balanced by the method of determining the center of oſcillation, or the number of vibra⯑tions made in a ſecond. So that the number of oſcillations, and the chord of the arc deſcribed, being both diminiſhed by the reſiſtance of the air; and the one of theſe quantities being a multiplier, and the other a diviſor, in the formula for the velocity; the one of thoſe ſmall effects will nearly balance the other; much in the ſame way as the effects of the firſt cauſe, or the friction on the axis. So that, theſe effects may both of them be ſafely neglected, as in no caſe amounting to any ſenſible quantity.
[126]In the beginning of this inveſtigation, it is ſuppoſed that the reſiſt⯑ance of the medium is equal to the weight of a column of the medium, whoſe baſe is the moving ſurface, and its altitude equal to that from whence a heavy body muſt fall to acquire the velocity of that ſur⯑face. But ſome philoſophers think the altitude ſhould be only one half of that, and conſequently the preſſure only one half: which would ren⯑der the reſiſtance ſtill leſs conſiderable. But if the altitude and reſiſt⯑ance were even double of that above found, it might be ſtill ſafely neglected.
28. The third ſeeming cauſe of error in our rule is the time in which the ball communicates its motion to the pendulum, or the time employed in the penetration. The principle on which the rule is founded ſuppoſes the momentum of the ball to be communicated in an inſtant; but this is not accurately the caſe, becauſe this force is com⯑municated during the time in which the ball makes the penetration. And although that time be evidently very ſmall, ſcarcely amounting to the 500th part of a ſecond, it will be proper to enquire what effect that circumſtance may have on the truth of our theorem, or on the velocity of the ball, as computed by it.
In order to this, let the notation employed in Art. 21 be ſuppoſed here; and let ABC be a ſide-view of the pendulum moved out of the vertical poſition AD by the perpendicular blow of the ball againſt the point D or C. Alſo
Then is R/b the retarding force of the ball, which is conſtant. Again, as the motion of the pendulum ariſes from the reſiſting force R of the [127]wood, Ri will be its momentum; and as the ſum of the forces in the pendulum was found to be = pgo, the accelerating force of the point c will be Rii/pgo, which force is conſtant alſo. But in the action of forces that are conſtant, the time t is equal to the velocity divided by the force, and by 2h or 2 × 16.09 feet, and the ſpace is equal to the ſquare of the velocity divided by the force and by 4h; conſequently t = pgou/2hiiR, x = pgouu/4hiiR, and t = −bv / 2hR, x + z = −bvv / 4hR, or by correc. t = b/2hR × (v − v), x + z = b/4hR × (v2 − v2). The two values of the time t being equated, we obtain pgou = bii(v − v), or pgou + biiv = biiv.
And when v = u, or the action of the ball on the pendulum ceaſes, this equation becomes pgoU + biiU = biiv, and hence u = biiv/pgo+bii is the greateſt velocity of the point C at the inſtant when the ball has penetrated to the greateſt depth, and ceaſes to urge the pendulum farther. So that this velocity is the ſame, whatever the reſiſting force of the wood is, and therefore to whatever depth the ball penetrates, and the ſame as if the wood were perfectly hard, or the ball made no penetration at all. And this velocity of the point of impact alſo agrees with that which was found in Art. 21. So that the velocity communicated to the point of impact is the ſame, whether the impulſe is made in an inſtant, or in ſome ſmall portion of time. And hence, in the uſual caſe of a penetration, becauſe the block will have moved ſome ſmall diſtance before it has attained its greateſt velocity, it might at firſt view ſeem as if it would ſwing or riſe higher than when that velocity is communicated in an inſtant, or when the pendulum is yet in its ver⯑tical poſition, and ſo might deſcribe a longer chord, and ſhew a greater velocity of the ball than it ought. But on the other hand it muſt be [128]conſidered, that in the ſmall part of its ſwing, which the pendulum has made before the penetration is completed, or has attained its greateſt velocity, juſt as much velocity will be loſt by the oppoſing gravity or weight of the pendulum, as if it had ſet out from the vertical poſition with the ſaid greateſt velocity; and therefore the real velocity at that height will be the ſame in both caſes. Hence then it may ſafely be con⯑cluded, that the circumſtance of the ball's penetration cauſes no altera⯑tion in the velocity of it, as computed by our formula. And as it was before found that no ſenſible error is incurred by the two firſt circum⯑ſtances, namely, the friction on the axis, and the reſiſtance of the air to the back of the pendulum, we may be well aſſured that our formula brings out the true velocity with which the ball ſtrikes the pendulum, without any ſenſible error.
29. Since biiv/pgo+bii denotes the greateſt velocity which the point c of the pendulum acquires by the ſtroke, dividing by i, we ſhall have biv/pgo+bii for the angular velocity of the pendulum, or that of a radius 1. From which it appears that the vibration will be very ſmall when i or the diſtance AD is ſmall, and alſo when i is very great. And if we take this expreſſion a maximum, and make its fluxion = 0, i only being variable, we ſhall obtain pgo = bii, and i = √ pgo/b for the diſtance of the center of percuſſion, or the point where the ball muſt ſtrike ſo as to cauſe the greateſt vibration in the pendulum; which point, in this caſe, is neither the center of gravity nor the center of oſcillation; but will be at a great diſtance below the axis when p is great reſpect of b, as in the caſe of our experiments, in which p is 600 or 800 times b.
[129]30. It may not be improper here, by the way, to enquire a little into the time of the penetration, its extent or depth, and the meaſure of the reſiſting force of the wood.
It was found above that x = pgouu/4hiiR, and x + z = b/4hR × (v2 − v2). Now ſubſtituting in theſe biiv/pgo+bii, the greateſt value of u, for u and v, we have [...], [...]. The latter of theſe being the greateſt depth penetrated by the ball into the wood, and the former the diſtance moved by the point C of the pen⯑dulum at the inſtant when the penetration is completed. Both of which, it is evident, are directly as the ſquare of the original velocity of the ball, and inverſely as the reſiſting force of the wood; the other quantities remaining conſtant.
Hence alſo it appears that, other things remaining, the penetration will be leſs, as i is greater, or as the point of impact is farther below the axis. It is farther evident that the penetration will diminiſh as the ſum of the forces pgo diminiſhes.
Now, for an example in numbers, a ball fired with a velocity of 1500 feet per ſecond, has been found to penetrate about 14 inches into a block of ſound dry elm, when the dimenſions of the pendulum were as below:
| p = 660 lb | the ball being caſt iron, |
| g = 78 inches or 6½ feet, | its diameter 1.96 inches, |
| o = 84 inches or 7 feet, | and its weight 1 3/64 or 67/64 lb. |
| i = 90 inches or 7½ feet, | and the value of z is 14 inch. or 7/6 feet. |
Here the value of v is 1500, and z = 14 inches or 7/6 feet. [130]Hence [...] nearly, which is the value of R for a ball of that ſize and weight. Or the reſiſtance in this inſtance is 32000 times the force of gravity. Hence alſo [...] part of a foot, or 1/39 part of an inch, is the ſpace moved by the point C of the pendulum when the penetration is completed.
Alſo [...] part of a ſecond, is the time of completing the penetration of 14 inches deep.
31. Upon the whole then it appears, that our rule will give, without ſenſible error, the true velocity with which the ball ſtrikes the pendulum. But this is not, however, the ſame velocity with which the ball iſſues from the mouth of the gun, which will indeed be ſomething greater than the former, on account of the reſiſtance of the air which the ball paſſes through in its way from the gun to the pendulum. And although this ſpace of air be but ſmall, and although the elaſtic fluid of the pow⯑der purſue and urge the ball for ſome diſtance without the mouth of the piece, and ſo in ſome degree counteract the reſiſtance of the air, yet it will be proper to enquire into the effect of this reſiſtance, as it will pro⯑bably cauſe a difference between the velocity of the ball, as computed from the vibration of the pendulum and the vibration of the gun; which difference will, by the bye, be no bad way of meaſuring the reſiſtance of the air, eſpecially if the gun be placed at a good diſtance from the pendulum; for the vibration of the gun will meaſure the velocity with which the ball iſſues from the mouth of it; and the vibration of the pen⯑dulum the velocity with which it is ſtruck by the ball.
32. To find therefore the reſiſtance of the air againſt the ball in any caſe: it is firſt to be conſidered that the reſiſtance to a plane moving [131]perpendicularly through a fluid at reſt, is equal to the weight or preſſure of a column of the fluid whoſe altitude is the height through which the body muſt fall by the force of gravity to acquire the velocity with which it moves through the fluid, the baſe of the column being equal to the plane. So that, if a denote the area of the plane, v the velocity, n the ſpecific gravity of the fluid, and h = 16.09 feet; the altitude due to the velocity v being vv/4h, the whole reſiſtance or motive force m will be a × n × vv/4h = anvv/4h.
Now if d denote the diameter of the ball, and k = .7854, then ſhall a = kd2 be a great circle of the ball; and conſequently [...] the motive force on the ſurface of a circle equal to a great circle of the ball.
But the reſiſtance on the hemiſpherical ſurface of the ball is only one half of that on the flat circle of the ſame diameter; therefore [...] is the motive force on the ball; and if w denote its weight, [...] will be equal to f the retarding force.
Since ⅔kd3 is the magnitude of the ſphere, if N denote its denſity or ſpecific gravity, its weight w will be = ⅔kd3 N; conſequently the re⯑tarding force f or m / w will be [...].
But by the laws of forces vv̇ = 2hfẋ = −3nvv/8dN ẋ, and v̇/w = −3n/8dN ẋ = − eẋ, where x is the ſpace paſſed over, putting e = 3n/8dN, and making the value negative becauſe the velocity v is de⯑creaſing. And the correct fluent of this is log. v − log. v or log. v / w = ex, where v is the firſt or greateſt velocity of projection. Or if A be = 2.718281828 &c. the number whoſe hyperbolic logarithm is 1, [132]then is v / v = Aex, and hence the velocity v = v / Aex = VA−ex. So that the firſt velocity is to the laſt velocity, as Aex to 1. And the ve⯑locity loſt by the reſiſtance of the medium is (Aex − 1) v or Aex−1/Aex V.
33. Now to adapt this to the caſe of our balls, which weighed on a medium 16¾ ounces when the diameter was 1.96 inches; we ſhall have 1.963 × .5236 = the magnitude of the ball; and as 1 cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches, of water, weighs 1000 ounces, therefore [...] is the ſpecific gravity of the iron ball; which is very juſtly ſomething leſs than the uſual ſpecific gravity of ſolid caſt iron, on account of the ſmall air bubble which is in all caſt metal balls. Alſo the mean ſpecific gravity of air is .0012, which is the value of n. Hence [...].
Now the common diſtance of the face of the pendulum from the trun⯑nions of all the guns, was 35½ feet; and the diſtance of the muzzles of the four guns, was nearly 34¼ for the 1ſt or ſhorteſt gun, 34 for the 2d, 33 for the 3d, and 31½ for the 4th. But as the elaſtic fluid purſues and urges the ball for a few feet after it is out of the gun, it may be ſup⯑poſed to counter-balance the reſiſtance of the air for a few feet, the num⯑ber of which cannot be certainly known, and therefore we ſhall ſuppoſe 32 feet to be the common diſtance, for each of the guns, which the ball paſſes through before it reach the pendulum. Hence then the diſtance x = 32; and conſequently ex = 32/2666 = 16/1333.
Then Aex − 1 = .01207 = 1/83 nearly. That is, the ball loſes nearly the 83d part of its laſt velocity, or the 84th part of its firſt velocity, in paſſing from the gun to the pendulum, by the reſiſt⯑ance of the air. Or the velocity at the mouth of the gun, is to the velocity at the pendulum, as 84 to 83; ſo that the greater diminiſhed by its 84th part gives the leſs, and the leſs increaſed by its [133]83d part gives the greater. But if the reſiſtance to ſuch ſwift velocities as ours be about three times as great as that above, computed from the nature of perfect and infinitely compreſſed fluids, as Mr. Robins thinks he has found it to be, then ſhall the velocity at the gun loſe its 28th part, and the greater velocity will be to the leſs, as 28 to 27. This however is a circumſtance to be diſcovered from our experiments, or otherwiſe.
34. It has been ſaid by more than one writer on this ſubject, that the effect of the inflamed power on the recoil of the gun, is the ſame whether it be charged with a ball, or fired by itſelf alone; that is, that the exceſs of the recoil when charged with a ball, over the recoil when fired without a ball, is exactly that which is due to the motion and re⯑ſiſtance of the ball. And this they ſay they have found from repeated experiments. Now ſuppoſing thoſe experiments to be accurate, and the deductions from them juſtly drawn; yet as they have been made only with ſmall balls and ſmall charges of powder, it may ſtill be doubted whether the ſame law will hold good when applied to ſuch cannon balls, and large charges of powder, as thoſe uſed in our preſent experiments. Which is a circumſtance that remains to be determined from the reſults of them. And this determination will be eaſily made, by comparing the velocity of the ball as computed from this law, with that which is computed from the vibration of the balliſtic pendulum. For if the law hold good in ſuch caſes as theſe, then the velocity of the ball, as deduced from the vibration of the gun, will exceed that which is deduced from the vibration of the pendulum, by as much as the velocity is diminiſhed by the reſiſtance of the air between the gun and the pendulum.
[134]35. Taking this for granted then in the mean time, namely, that the effect of the charge of powder on the recoil of the gun, is the ſame either with or without a ball, it will be proper here to inveſtigate a for⯑mula for computing the velocity of the ball from the recoil of the gun. Now upon the foregoing principle, if the chord of vibration be found for any charge without a ball, and then for the ſame charge with a ball, the difference of thoſe chords will be equal to the chord which is due to the motion of the ball. This follows from the property of a circle and a body deſcending along it, namely, that the velocity is always as the chord of the arc deſcribed in a ſemivibration.
Let then c denote this difference of the two chords, that is c = the chord of arc due to the ball's velocity, G = weight of the gun and iron ſtem, &c. b = weight of the ball, g = diſtance of center of gravity of G, o = diſtance of its center of oſcillation, n = its No. of oſcillations per minute, i = diſtance of the gun's axis, or point of impact, r = radius of arc or chord c, v = velocity of the ball, v = velocity of the gun, or of the axis of its bore.
Then becauſe biiv is the ſum of the momenta of the ball, and Ggov the ſum of the momenta of the gun, and becauſe action and re-action are equal, theſe two muſt be equal to each other, that is biiv = Ggov: But becauſe v is the velocity of the diſtance i, therefore by ſimilar figures i ∶ o ∷ v ∶ DV / i the velocity of the center of oſcillation. And becauſe the velocity of this center, is equal to the velocity generated by gravity, in deſcending perpendicularly through the height or verſed ſine [135]of the arc deſcribed by it, and becauſe 2r ∶ c ∷ c ∶ cc/2r = verſed ſine to radius r, and r ∶ o ∷ cc/2r ∶ cco/2rr = verſ. ſine to radius o, therefore √h ∶ √ cco/2rr ∷ 2h ∶ c/r √2ho, the velocity of the center of oſcillation as deduced from the chord c of the arc deſcribed, where h = 16.09 feet; which velocity was before found = ov / i.
Therefore oV / i = c/r √2ho, or oV = ci/r √2ho. Then this value of ov being ſubſtituted in the firſt equation biiv = Ggov, we have biiv = Ggci/r √2ho, and hence the ve⯑locity v = Ggc/bir √2ho = 5.6727Ggc/bir √o, being the formula by which the velocity of the ball will be found in terms of the diſtance of the center of oſcillation and the other quantities. Which is exactly ſimilar to the formula for the ſame velocity, by means of the pendulum in Art. 22, uſing only G, or the weight of the gun, for p + b or the ſum of the weights of the ball and pendulum.
And if, inſtead of √o be ſubſtituted its value √ 11737.5/nn or 108.3398/n, from Art. 20, it becomes v = 614.58 × Ggc/birn, or = 59000/96 × Ggc/birn, the formula for the velocity of the ball in terms of the number of vi⯑brations which the gun will make in one minute, and the other quantities.
36. Farther, as the quantities G, g, b, i, r, n commonly remain the ſame, the velocity will be directly as the chord c. So that if we aſſume a caſe in which the chord ſhall be 1, and call its correſponding velocity u; then ſhall v = cu; or the velocity correſponding to any [136]other chord c, will be found by multiplying that chord c by the firſt velocity u anſwering to the chord 1.
Now, by the following experiments, the uſual values of thoſe literal quantities were as follows: viz. G = 917 g = 80.47 b = 1.047, ſometimes a little more or leſs. i = 89.15 r = 1000 n = 40.0, for the gun no 2, (but the 400th part more for no 1, and the 400th part leſs for no 3, and the 200th part leſs for no 4.)
Then, writing theſe values in the theorem, inſtead of the letters, it be⯑comes v = 12.15c. So that the number 12.15 multiplied by the difference between two chords deſcribed with any charge, the one with and the other without a ball, will give the velocity of the ball when the dimenſions are as ſtated above. And when the values of any of the let⯑ters vary from theſe, it is but increaſing or diminiſhing that product in the ſame proportion, according as the letter belongs to the numerator or denominator in the general formula 59000/96 × Ggc/birn. When ſuch va⯑riations happen, they will be mentioned in each day's experiments. And farther when only the values of G, g, i, n are as before ſpeci⯑fied, the ſame formula will become 12718 × c/br.
But note that theſe rules are adapted to the gun no 2 only; therefore for no 1 we muſt ſubtract the 400th part, and add the 400th part for no 3, and add the 200th part for no 4.
37. WE ſhall now proceed to ſtate the circumſtances of the experi⯑ments for each day ſeparately as they happened; by this means ſhewing all the proceſſes for each ſet of experiments, with the failure or ſucceſs of every trial and mode of operation; and from which alſo any perſon may recompute all the reſults, and otherwiſe combine and draw con⯑cluſions from them as occaſion may require. Making but a very few curſory remarks on each day's experiments, to explain them when ne⯑ceſſary; and reſerving the chief philoſophical deductions, to be drawn and ſtated together, after the cloſe of the experiments, in a more con⯑nected and methodical way.
The machinery having been made as perfect as the circumſtances would permit, 20 barrels of government powder were procured, all by the beſt maker, and numbered from 1 to 20. A great number of iron balls were alſo caſt on purpoſe, very round, and their accidental aſperi⯑ties ground off: they were a little varied in their ſize and weight, but moſt of them almoſt equal to the diameter of the bore, ſo as to have but little windage. The powder was uniformly mixed, and every day exactly weighed off by the ſame careful man, and put up in very thin flannel bags, of a ſize juſt to fit the bore of the gun; a thread was tied round cloſe by the powder, after being ſhaken down, and the flan⯑nel cut off cloſe by the thread, ſo as to leave as ſhort a neck as poſſible to the bag. The charge of powder was puſhed gently down to the lower or breech end of the bore, and the ſame quantity of powder al⯑ways made to occupy nearly the ſame extent, by means of the diviſions of inches and tenths marked on the ramrod. The ball was then put in, without uſing any wads, and ſet cloſe to the charge of powder, and kept in its place by a fine thread croſſed two or three times about it, which by its friction gave it a hold of the ſides of the bore, as the windage was very ſmall. The gun was directed point blank, or horizontal, and [138]perpendicular to the face of the pendulum block, 35½ feet diſtant from the trunnions, and was well wiped and cleaned out after each diſcharge, which was made by piercing the bottom of the charge through the vent, and firing it by means of a ſmall tube. An account was kept of the barometer and thermometer, placed within a houſe adjoining, and ſhaded from the ſun.
The machinery having been all prepared and ſet up in a convenient place in Woolwich Warren, Major Blomefield and I went out on the 6th of June 1783, with a ſufficient party of men, to try the effects of them for the firſt time, which were as follows.
The weather was warm, dry, and clear.
The barometer at 30.17, and thermometer at 60°.
The intention of this day's experiments, was to try and adjuſt the apparatus; to aſcertain the proper diſtance of the pendulum; as alſo the comparative ſtrength of the different barrels of powder, by firing ſeveral charges of it, without balls or wads. Out of the 20 barrels of powder, were ſelected the 6 which had been found to be moſt uniform, and neareſt alike, by the different eprouvettes at Purfleet, which were no• 2, 5, 13, 15, 18, 19; of which the firſt two only were tried this day, as below. The gun was the ſhort one, no 1, and weighed this day, with leaden weights and iron ſtem, 906 lb: the diſtance of the tape, by which the chord of its recoil was meaſured, was not taken, and it was probably a little more than the uſual length, 110 inches, employed in moſt of the experiments of this year.
[139]Here it appears that the quan⯑tity of recoil increaſed in a higher ratio than the quantity of powder.
The pendulum was not moved by the blaſt of the powder in theſe experiments.
| Powder | ||||
| No. of Experim. | ſort | weight | Chord of recoil | Medium of recoil |
| oz | inches | |||
| 1 | no 2 | 2 | 2.25 | 2.30 |
| 2 | no 2 | 2 | 2.35 | 2.30 |
| 3 | no 2 | 2 | 2.30 | 2.30 |
| 4 | no 5 | 2 | 2.55 | 2.50 |
| 5 | no 5 | 2 | 2.40 | 2.50 |
| 6 | no 5 | 2 | 2.55 | 2.50 |
| 7 | no 5 | 8 | 13.00 | 12.88 |
| 8 | no 5 | 8 | 12.75 | 12.88 |
| 9 | no 2 | 8 | 12.50 | 12.50 |
| 10 | no 2 | 8 | 12.50 | 12.50 |
The weather cloudy or hazy, but it did not rain.
Barometer 30.25, Thermometer 60°.
To try all the 6 ſorts of powder, and the effect of the blaſt on the pendulum, when high charges are uſed.
The firſt 14 rounds were with the ſame apparatus and gun no 1, as the former day.
The other four rounds with the gun no 4, but without the leaden weights; it weighed with the iron 561 lb.
[140]Theſe recoils are very uni⯑form, and there appears to be but little difference in the quality of the powder among the ſeveral ſorts.
| Powder | ||||
| No. | ſort | weight | Recoil | Mediums |
| oz | inches | |||
| 1 | 2 | 8 | 13.35 | 13.38 |
| 2 | 2 | 8 | 13.40 | 13.38 |
| 3 | 5 | 8 | 13.50 | 13.28 |
| 4 | 5 | 8 | 13.05 | 13.28 |
| 5 | 13 | 8 | 13.50 | 13.23 |
| 6 | 13 | 8 | 12.95 | 13.23 |
| 7 | 15 | 8 | 13.50 | 13.35 |
| 8 | 15 | 8 | 13.20 | 13.35 |
| 9 | 18 | 8 | 13.25 | 13.38 |
| 10 | 18 | 8 | 13.50 | 13.38 |
| 11 | 19 | 8 | 12.95 | 12.95 |
| 12 | 19 | 8 | 12.95 | 12.95 |
| 13 | 13 | 2 | 2.25 | |
| 14 | 13 | 16 | 26.00 | |
| vibr. of pendulum | ||||
| 15 | 13 | 2 | 4.5 | 0 |
| 16 | 13 | 4 | 10.8 | 0 |
| 17 | 13 | 8 | 24.7 | 0.25 |
| 18 | 13 | 16 | 53.3 | 1.10 |
All the charges were in flannel bags, except no• 14 and 18, of 16 oz each, for want of bags large enough provided to put it in. Each charge was rammed with two or three ſlight ſtrokes. A conſiderable quantity of the powder of no 14 was blown out unfired; many of the grains were found on the ground, and on the top of the pendulum block, and many were found ſticking in the face of it. By the force of theſe ſtriking it, and by the blaſt of the powder, or motion of the air, the pendulum was obſerved viſibly to vibrate a little: but the meaſuring tape had not been put to it. This was therefore now added, to meaſure the vibration by. And, to try to what degree the pen⯑dulum would be affected by the exploſion of the powder, the 7 feet amuſette was ſuſpended, and pointed oppoſite the center of the pendulum for the laſt 4 rounds. The pendulum was accordingly obſerved to move with the 8 ounces, but more with the 16 ounces, as appears at the bottom of the laſt column of the table above. The pendulum being thus much affected, we were convinced of the neceſſity of making a paper ſcreen to place between the gun and the pendulum; which we accordingly did, and uſed it in the whole courſe of experiments, at leaſt in the larger charges. At the laſt charge, which was 16 ounces of looſe powder, much ſewer grains were blown out than with the like charge at no 14 with the ſhort gun. The recoil at no 14 is evidently leſs than it ought to be; [141]owing to the quantity of unfired powder that was blown out. It is re⯑markable that the recoil of the two guns, with the ſame charge, both for 2 ounces and 8 ounces, are nearly in the reciprocal ratio of the weights of the guns; a ſmall exceſs only, over that proportion, taking place in favour of the long gun, as due to its ſuperior length. The recoils are each viſibly in a higher proportion than the charges of powder: for, in the laſt four experiments, the charges of 2, 4, 8, 16 ounces, are in the continued proportion of 1 to 2; which their recoils 4.5, 10.8, 24.7, 53.3, are all in a higher ratio than that of 1 to 2; for, dividing the 2d by the 1ſt, the 3d by the 2d, and the 4th by the 3d, the three ſucceſſive quotients are 2.40, 2.29, 2.16, which are all above the double ratio, but approximating, however, towards it as the charge is increaſed. And farther, if we divide theſe quotients ſucceſſively one by another, the two new ratios or quotients will be nearly equal. So that, ranging thoſe recoils in a column under each other, and their two ſucceſſive orders of ratios in the adjacent columns, we ſhall have in one view the law which they obſerve, as here below, where they always tend to equality.
| 4.5 | 2.40 | .954 | .99 |
| 10.8 | 2.29 | .944 | |
| 24.7 | 2.16 | ||
| 53.3 |
Again, if we take ſucceſſive differences between the ſame recoils, and between theſe differences, and then between the ſecond differences, and ſo on, thus
| 4.5 | 6.3 | 7.6 | 7.1 |
| 10.8 | 13.9 | 14.7 | |
| 24.7 | 28.6 | ||
| 53.3 |
the columns, as well as the lines, aſcending obliquely from left to right, have their numbers approaching, and at length ending in the ratio of 2 to 1, the ſame as the quantities of powder.
The air moiſt, with ſmall rain at intervals.
The gun no 2 was mounted, and loaded with all the leaden weights: it was charged with the following quantities of powder; ſometimes with a ball, and ſometimes without one, as denoted by the cipher o, in the columns of weight and diameter of ball. The radius to the tape was —. As theſe experiments were made only to diſcover if the leaden weights would render the gun ſufficiently heavy, that the recoil might not be too large with the high charges of powder and ball, the pendulum block was removed, to let the balls enter and lodge in the bank which was be⯑hind it
Here again it appears that the recoils, without balls, are always in a greater ratio than the charges of powder. It alſo appears that the recoils, when balls are em⯑ployed, are nearly in the ratio of the quantities of powder, when the charges are ſmall; but gra⯑dually decreaſing more and more below that ratio, as the charge of powder is increaſed. And if we ſubtract each recoil without a ball, from the correſponding re⯑coil
| No. | Powder | Ball's | Rceoil | |||
| ſort | wt | diameter | wt | |||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | ||
| 1 | 19 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2.5 | |
| 2 | 19 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2.5 | |
| 3 | 19 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 5.2 | |
| 4 | 19 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 13.5 | |
| 5 | 19 | 16 | 0 | 0 | 28.1 | |
| 6 | 18 | 16 | 0 | 0 | 28.0 | |
| 7 | 19 | 2 | 1.9 | 15 | 4 | 8.9 |
| 8 | 19 | 4 | 1.9 | 15 | 4 | 16.15 |
| 9 | 19 | 8 | 1.9 | 15 | 4 | 26.5 |
| 10 | 19 | 16 | 1.9 | 15 | 4 | 41.75 |
| 11 | 18 | 16 | 1.9 | 15 | 4 | 34.3 |
| 12 | 18 | 16 | 1.9 | 15 | 4 | 35.15 |
| 13 | 19 | 16 | 1.975 | 16 | 13 | 36.0 |
| 14 | 19 | 16 | 1.965 | 16 | 13 | 33.5 |
with a ball, for the ſame charge of powder, taking the differences as here below,
| Weight of powder | oz 2 | 4 | 8 | 16 |
| Recoils with a ball | 8.9 | 16.2 | 26.5 | 34.7 |
| Recoils without | 2.5 | 5.2 | 13.5 | 28.0 |
| Differences | 6.4 | 11.0 | 13.0 | 6.7 |
[143]it will appear that thoſe differences increaſe as far as to the charge of 8 ounces, and then decreaſe again.
There muſt have been ſome miſtake in the 10th round, as the recoil, which is 41.75 inches, is greater than can well be expected with that charge of powder. Probably the tape had entangled, and been drawn farther out in the return of the gun from the recoil.
We went with the workmen, and took the weight and dimenſions of the ſeveral parts of the machinery, both of the pendulum with its ſtem, and of the guns with their frame or iron ſtem, and the leaden weights to fit on about the trunnions.
| Total weight with all the iron work about it | 559 lb |
| Diſtance from its axis to the center of gravity | 75.2 inches |
| Ditto from its axis to the tape or loweſt point | 115.1 inches |
| Ditto from its axis to the top of the block | 76.3 inches |
| Dimenſions of the wooden block | 18, 22, and 24 inches |
That is, breadth of the face 18, height of the face 24, and length from front to back 22.
| Total weight of all the iron work | 188 lb |
| Diſtance from its axis to the center of gravity (without gun) | 44.25 inches |
| Ditto from its axis to the tape or loweſt point | 110 inches |
| Ditto from its axis to center of the trunnions | 90.3 inches |
| Ditto from its axis to the perpendicular arm | 75.75 inches |
[144]The following figure is a ſide-view of the gun-frame or ſtem, as it hung on its axis with the gun,
And the dimenſions or meaſures to theſe points are as follows:
| inches | |
| AG | 44.25 |
| AB | 75.75 |
| AT | 90.3 |
| At | 110.0 |
| Be | 5.6 |
| Gg | 3.3 |
Breadth of ſtem AT 3.5, and from the middle of this breadth the diſtances Be and Gg are meaſured.
42. The following are alſo the meaſures taken to ſettle the poſition of the compound center of gravity of the gun with its leaden weights and iron ſtem all together.
| No of the gun | Diameter of the trunnions | Diameter of the gun at the center of the trunnions | Center of gravity or axis of the gun alone | Center of gravity of the whole below axis | |||
| behind the | above cent. of the trun. | below axis of vibration | |||||
| muzzle | center of trunnions | ||||||
| 1 | 2.2 | 7.00 | 18.5 | 1.4 | 1.24 | 89.06 | 80.47 |
| 2 | 2.2 | 5.89 | 24.5 | 1.8 | 1.24 | 89.06 | 80.47 |
| 3 | 2.25 | 5.06 | 37.4 | 4.2 | 1.11 | 89.19 | 80.50 |
| 4 | 2.2 | 4.84 | 51.3 | 3.0 | 1.02 | 89.28 | 80.44 |
The numbers in the laſt column of this table, are the values of the letter g, in the formula for the velocity by means of the recoil of the gun. This letter may always be ſuppoſed to have the value 80.47 inches, as the two laſt numbers of the column differ from it but .03 only, or about the 2700 part of the whole, inducing an error of only about half a foot in the velocity of the ball.
The values of g, in this laſt column of the table, were computed in the following manner.
43. It may here be alſo remarked, that the mean number of vibra⯑tions per minute, for every gun, weighing in all 917lb, taken among the actual vibrations of each day, is for
| no 1 | no 2 | no 3 | no 4 |
| 40.1 | 40.0 | 39.9 | 39.8 |
which number muſt be uſed as the true value of n, in the formula for the velocity of the ball by means of the recoil of the gun. The number of the gun's vibrations was commonly tried every day, and they were found to vary but little, and among them all the numbers above-men⯑tioned, are the arithmetical mediums.
44.Moreover the mean numbers for the pendulum, among all the daily meaſurements of its weight, center of gravity, and oſcillations per minute, are thus:
| weight | g | n |
| 660lb | 77.3 | 40.2 |
Of the great number of theſe meaſures that were taken, the variations among them would be ſometimes in exceſs and ſometimes in defect; and therefore the above numbers, which are the means among the whole, as long as the iron work remains the ſame, will probably be very near the truth. And by uſing always theſe, with proportional alterations in g and n for any alteration in the weight p, the computations of the velo⯑city of the ball will be made by a rule that is uniform, and not ſubject at leaſt to accidental ſingle errors. When the weight of the pendulum varies by the wood alone of the block, or the ſtraps about it, the alteration is to be made at the center of the block, which is exactly 88.3 inches be⯑low the axis; that is, in that caſe the value of i is 88.3 in the formula [...], or the correction for g; and in [...], the cor⯑rection [148]of n. But when the alteration of the weight p ariſes from the balls and plugs lodged in the ſame block, then the value of i in thoſe corrections is the medium among the diſtances of the point ſtruck. And when the iron work is altered, the middle of the place altered gives the value of i in the ſame theorems.
In theſe corrections too p denotes 660, g 77.3, n 40.2, and b the difference between 660 and any other given weight of the pendulum; which value of b will be negative when this weight is below 660, other⯑wiſe poſitive; ſo that p + b is always equal to this weight of pendulum.
And if theſe values of p, g, n be ſubſtituted for them in thoſe cor⯑rections, they will become [...] or i−77.3/p b, the correction for g, and [...] the correction for n.
And farther, when i = 88.3, the ſame become 11b/660+b or 11 − 7260/p the correction for g, and b/1263+2.2b or .4545 − 261/p−86 the correction for n, as adapted to an alteration at the center of the pendulum.
And in that caſe G = 88.3 − 7260/p is the new value of g, and N = 39.7454 + 261/p−86 is the new value of n. But thoſe corrections will have contrary ſigns when b is negative, as well as the ſecond term in each of the denominators.
The air clear, dry, and hot.
Barometer 30.34, and Thermometer 74.
We began this day for the firſt time to fire with balls againſt the pen⯑dulum block. The powder of the ſix barrels before-mentioned, had been all well mixed together for the uſe of our experiments, that they might be as uniform as poſſible, in that, as well as in other reſpects.
The GUN was no 1, with the leaden weights.
Its weight and the diſtance of its center of gravity, were as before⯑mentioned; the diſtance of the tape it was forgotten this day to meaſure, but from circumſtances judged to be 106½.
PENDULUM.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Struck below axis | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. of the ball | |||||
| wt | diam. | gun | pend. | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 8 | 11.2 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 16 | 23.4 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 34 | 23 | 87.9 | 559.0 | 75.30 | 40.30 | 1392 | |
| 6 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 35.4 | 25 | 86.8 | 560.1 | 75.32 | 40.30 | 1534 | |
| 7 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 34.8 | 23.7 | 88.8 | 561.1 | 75.35 | 40.29 | 1426 | |
| 8 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 35.1 | 25 | 87.6 | 15 | 562.2 | 75.37 | 40.29 | 1530 |
| 9 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 35.7 | 23.7 | 88.2 | 10 | 564.6 | 75.39 | 40.28 | 1445 |
| 10 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 35.2 | 23.1 | 88.3 | 566.5 | 75.42 | 40.28 | 1412 | |
| medium | 35.0 | medium | 1456 | |||||||||
The firſt 4 rounds were with powder only; the other 6 with balls, all of the ſame ſize and weight.
[150]
| The diameter of the gun bore being | 2.02, and |
| the diameter of the ball | 1.95, conſequently |
| the windage was | 0.07 |
| Mean length of the charge of powder | 10.6 |
The two oaken plugs which were driven in, to fill up the holes, after the 8th and 9th rounds, weighed about 1¼ oz. to each inch of their length. The whole weights of theſe plugs, and the weights of the balls lodged in the block, were continually added to the weight of the pen⯑dulum, to compleat the numbers for the values of p in the 9th column; and from theſe numbers the correſpondent values of g and n, in the next two columns, are computed by their proper corrections in Art. 23 and 25. After which the velocities contained in the laſt column are computed by the formula in Art. 24. And the medium among all theſe velocities, as well as that of the recoils of the gun, are placed at the bottom of their reſpective columns.
| From the mean recoil with ball | 35.0 |
| take the recoil without a ball | 23.4 |
| there remains | c = 11.6 |
Then, having b = 1.051, and r = 106.5, by the rule 12718 × c/br in Art. 36, we have only 1315 feet, for the velocity of the ball as de⯑duced from the recoil of the gun; which is 141 leſs than the velocity found by the vibration of the pendulum, or about 1/10th of the whole velocity.
The powder blown out unfired was not much. The apparatus per⯑formed all very well, except only that the wood of the pendulum ſeemed not to be very ſound, as it was pierced quite through by the end of this day's experiments; though the ſheet lead with which the back was covered, as well as the face, juſt prevented the balls and pieces of the wood from falling out at the back of the pendulum.
The weather clear, dry, and hot. Barometer 30.27, and Thermometer 74.
| Weight | 917 |
| To center of gravity | 80.47 |
| To the tape | 109.7 |
| Weight | 846 |
| To center of gravity | 79.6 |
| To the tape | 117.3 |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Chord of vibrat. | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. of the ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | lbs | inches | ||||
| 1 | 2 | 2.3 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.3 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 8 | 13.0 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 8 | 14.1 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 8 | 13.6 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 16 | 26.3 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 16 | 28.7 | 9.5 | |||||||||
| 8 | 16 | 26.5 | 0.3 | |||||||||
| 9 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 39.0 | 24.2 | 89.0 | 846.0 | 79.3 | 41.48 | ||
A large piece had been cut out of the middle part of the pendulum, from the face almoſt to the back, to clear away the damaged part of the wood; and the vacuity was run full of lead, from an idea that the pen⯑dulum would not ſo ſoon be ſpoiled, and conſequently that it would need leſs repairs. But this did not ſucceed at all; for the only ſhot we diſcharged, namely, no 9, would not lodge in the lead, but broke into a thouſand ſmall pieces, many of which ſtuck in the lead, and formed a curious appearance; but the greater number rebounded back again, to the great danger of the by-ſtanders. The ball made a large round exca⯑vation in the face of the lead, of 5 inches diameter in the front, and 3½ inches deep in the center of the hole.
Length of the charge of 16 oz was 11 inches.
Fine, clear, hot weather.
| Weight | 917 |
| To center of gravity | 80.47 |
| To the tape | 110 |
| Weight | 610 |
| To center of gravity | 76.4 |
| To the tape | 118 |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Chord of vibrat. | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. of the ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | ||||||
| 1 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 16 | 28.4 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 16 | 25.7 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 16 | 28.3 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 44.6 | 34.0 | 89.1 | |||||
Length of the charge of 16 oz was 11.2 inches.
The pendulum had been altered ſince the former day. The core of lead being taken out, ſome layers of rope were laid at the bottom of the hole, then the remainder up to the front filled with a piece of ſound elm, and the face covered with ſheet lead.
At the laſt round, or that with ball, the iron tongue which held the tape of the pendulum, having ſlipped down by the looſening of a ſcrew, was ſtrained and bent. Which ſtopped the experiments till it could be repaired.
Fine, clear, hot weather.
The pendulum, gun no 3, and apparatus, were in every reſpect the ſame as in the laſt day's experiments, excepting that the radius of the tape, in the gun, was 110.2 inches inſtead of 110.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | lb | inches | feet | |||
| 1 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 16 | 28.0 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 16 | 29.0 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 16 | 28.6 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 44.1 | 33.7 | 89.6 | 607.0 | 76.34 | 40.25 | 2151 | |
| 7 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 42.6 | 30.9 | 90.3 | 608.1 | 76.36 | 40.25 | 1960 | |
| 8 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 46.8 | 32.3 | 89.3 | 609.1 | 76.38 | 40.24 | 2076 | |
| 9 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 44.4 | 30.5 | 89.6 | 610.2 | 76.39 | 40.24 | 1958 | |
| 10 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 43.9 | 31.4 | 89.2 | 611.2 | 76.41 | 40.24 | 2028 | |
| 11 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 42.3 | 31.5 | 90.7 | 612.3 | 76.43 | 40.23 | 2005 | |
| medium | 44.0 | medium | 2030 | |||||||||
The mean length of the charge of 16 oz was 11.7 inches. But this height was always taken when the cartridge was uncompreſſed: ſo that the powder lay looſer than in former experiments. By a ſmall preſſure it occupied about ¼ of an inch leſs ſpace.
The value of p at beginning this day is made a little leſs than the pendulum weighed at firſt, for reaſons to be mentioned hereafter.
The mean recoil with a ball is 44.0, and without a ball 28.5, the difference of which is 15.5 = c. Alſo, in the formula for the velocity by means of the gun, we have b = 1.051, and r = 110.2. Conſe⯑quently v = 401/400 × 12718 × c / br = 1706 for the velocity by that method. But the mean velocity by the pendulum is 2030, which exceeds the former by 324, or almoſt ⅙ of the whole velocity.
Fine, clear, hot weather. Barometer 30.23, Thermometer 72° at 9 o'clock.
| Weight | 917 |
| To center of gravity | 80.47 |
| To the tape | 110.2 |
It ſwung very freely, and would have continued its vibrations a long time; owing to the ends of the axis being made to turn or roll upon a convex iron ſupport, and kept from going backward and forward, with the vibrations, by two upright iron pins, placed ſo as not quite to touch the axis, but at a very ſmall or hair-breadth diſtance from it.
| Weight | 657 |
| To center of gravity | 77.26 |
| To the tape | 118 |
The pendulum would not vi⯑brate longer than 1 minute before the arcs became imperceptible, owing to the friction of the upright pins, which touched and bore hard againſt the ſides of the axis, unlike thoſe of the gun, although they had the ſame kind of round ſup⯑port to roll upon. The pendulum had been well repaired, and ſtrengthened with iron bars, and ſtraps going round it in ſeveral places, except over the face. Alſo thick iron plates were let into, and acroſs it, near the back part, then over them was laid a firm covering of rope, after which the reſt of the hole was filled up with a block of elm, and ſinally the face covered over with ſheet lead.
[155]
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.3 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.4 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 8 | 12.3 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 8 | 13.8 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 8 | 11.9 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 8 | 13.0 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 8 | 13.2 | ||||||||||
| 8 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 26.3 | 20.5 | 88.6 | 10 | 657.0 | 77.26 | 40.20 | 1450 |
| 9 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 27.2 | 21.9 | 89.7 | 9 | 658.5 | 77.28 | 40.20 | 1534 |
| 10 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 25.9 | 20.3 | 89.9 | 9 | 660.1 | 77.30 | 40.20 | 1423 |
| 11 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 26.8 | 20.5 | 88.6 | 8 | 661.6 | 77.33 | 40.20 | 1462 |
| 12 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 26.3 | 20.4 | 88.5 | 8 | 663.2 | 77.35 | 40.20 | 1460 |
| 13 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 26.8 | 20.9 | 88.6 | 8 | 664.7 | 77.37 | 40.20 | 1497 |
| mean | 1471 | |||||||||||
The mean length of the charge of 8 oz was 5.9.
The pendulum, having been ſo well ſecured, ſuffered but little by this day's firing, only bulging or ſwelling out a little at the back part. All the balls were left in it, and all the holes were ſucceſſively plugged up with oaken pins of near 2 inches diameter, which weighed 11 oz to every 10 inches in length.—The arcs deſcribed, both by the gun and pendulum, are pretty regular. And the whole forms a good ſet of ex⯑periments.
| The mean recoil of the gun with ball | 26.55 |
| without ball | 12.84 |
| difference c = | 13.71 |
Then v = 199/200 × 12718 × c/br = 399/400 × 12718 × 13.71/1.051×110.2 = 1501, the velocity of the ball as deduced from the recoil of the gun; which exceeds that deduced from the pendulum by 30, or nearly 1/49th part of this latter.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.55 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 4 | 6.45 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 4 | 6.05 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 8 | 13.8 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 8 | 13.9 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 8 | 13.55 | ||||||||||
| 8 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 28.35 | 24.35 | 87.8 | 9 | 664.7 | 77.37 | 40.19 | 1764 |
| 9 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 28.7 | 24.35 | 88.0 | 8 | 666.3 | 77.40 | 40.19 | 1765 |
| 10 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 28.3 | 24.3 | 87.9 | 7 | 667.8 | 77.42 | 40.19 | 1768 |
| 11 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 18.3 | 18.9 | 87.8 | 6 | 669.4 | 77.44 | 40.19 | 1380 |
| 12 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 18.0 | 18.4 | 87.3 | 6 | 670.9 | 77.47 | 40.19 | 1352 |
| 13 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 16.7 | 16.8 | 87.8 | 5 | 672.5 | 77.49 | 40.19 | |
| 14 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 18.4 | 18.0 | 87.7 | 4 | 674.0 | 77.51 | 40.19 | 1327 |
A freſh barrel of the mixed powder was opened for uſe this morning; and in the firſt 7 rounds, which were with powder only, that of the old and new barrel were uſed alternately, but no difference was obſerved.— The length of the charge of 4 oz was 3.2, and that of 8 oz was 5.9 inches.
It ſwung ſo freely, that after many hundred vibrations the arcs were ſcarce ſenſibly diminiſhed. This gun heated more at the muzzle than no; 1 did, being much thinner in metal there: but it was never very hot [157]to the hand in that part, and very little indeed about the place of the charge; for the heat was gradually leſs and leſs all the way from the muzzle to the breech, where it was not ſenſible to the hand.
It had remained hanging ſince the laſt day's experiments, with all the balls and plugs in it, which increaſed its weight by 10 lb, except an al⯑lowance for evaporation, and increaſed the diſtance of the center of gravity by little more than 1/10th of an inch. It vibrated with great free⯑dom; for it had this day been made to turn very freely on its axis, by placing the upright pins, which confine it ſide-ways, ſo as not quite to touch the axis, like thoſe of the gun yeſterday; and the effect was very great indeed, for it appeared as if it would have vibrated for a great length of time; whereas on the former days it ſtopped motion in about 1 minute, or at leaſt after that the arcs ſoon became too ſmall to be counted.—By this day's firing the pendulum ſeemed not to be much injured, the back part not appearing to be altered, and the fore part only a little ſwelled out, the piece of wood, that had been fitted in there, ſtarting a little forward, and bulging out the facing of lead.
| of the plugs every 10 inches in length weighed | 11 oz | |
| 4 oz | 8 oz | |
| The mean recoil of gun with ball | 18.23 | 28.45 |
| without | 6.25 | 13.75 |
| the difference or c = | 11.98 | 14.70 |
| Hence the velocity by the recoil is | 1321 | 1620 |
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 1353 | 1766 |
| Which exceeds that by recoil by | 32 | 146 |
| Or the | 42d | 12th part. |
This appears to be a good ſet, being very uniform, except the 13th round, which has been omitted, as evidently defective in the arc de⯑ſcribed both by the gun and pendulum, from ſome undiſcovered and unaccountable cauſe.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.3 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.4 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 4 | 5.8 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 4 | 5.8 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 4 | 5.8 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 15.9 | 14.8 | 89.8 | 5 | 674.0 | 77.51 | 40.19 | 1065 |
| 7 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 16.3 | 15.4 | 89.8 | 5 | 675.3 | 77.54 | 40.19 | 1111 |
| 8 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 16.4 | 15.8 | 90.2 | 5 | 676.6 | 77.56 | 40.19 | 1137 |
| 9 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 16.3 | 15.4 | 89.3 | 5 | 677.9 | 77.58 | 40.19 | 1122 |
| 10 | 2 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 9.8 | 10.7 | 89.1 | 3 | 679.2 | 77.61 | 40.19 | 783 |
| 11 | 2 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 9.9 | 11.0 | 89.5 | 2 | 680.5 | 77.63 | 40.18 | 803 |
| 12 | 2 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 10.1 | 11.1 | 90.3 | 3 | 681.8 | 77.66 | 40.18 | 805 |
| 13 | 2 | 2.55 | ||||||||||
| 14 | 2 | 2.55 | ||||||||||
| 15 | 2 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 11.1 | 12.6 | 88.8 | 3 | 683.1 | 77.68 | 40.18 | 930 |
| 16 | 2 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 10.7 | 12.0 | 89.4 | 3 | 684.4 | 77.71 | 40.18 | 881 |
| 17 | 2 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 11.0 | 12.3 | 89.8 | 3 | 685.7 | 77.73 | 40.18 | 901 |
| 18 | 2 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 10.8 | 11.9 | 89.0 | 687.0 | 77.76 | 40.18 | 881 | |
Of the plugs every 10 inches weighed 11 ounces.
Length of the charge of 2 oz was 1.7; and that of 4 oz was 3.2.
The GUN was no; 1 for the firſt 12 no•;, and no; 3 for the reſt; in order to complete the compariſon between theſe two guns with 2, 4, 8, and [159]16 oz of powder. The radius to the tape 110 inches, and the other cir⯑cumſtances as before.
The PENDULUM had been left hanging ſince yeſterday, and the radius to the tape was 117.8 as before. It became however ſo full of balls and plugs to-day, that no more plugs could be driven in, all the iron ſtraps being bent and forced out to their utmoſt ſtretch. It was therefore ordered to be gutted and repaired.
This is a good ſet of experiments; all the apparatus having per⯑formed well; and the arcs deſcribed, both by the gun and pendulum, being very uniform.
| Gun 1 | Gun 3 | ||
| 2 oz | 4 oz | 2 oz | |
| Mean recoil with ball | 9.93 | 16.23 | 10.90 |
| Ditto without | 2.35 | 5.80 | 2.55 |
| The difference or c = | 7.58 | 10.43 | 8.35 |
| Hence velocity by recoil | 832 | 1145 | 921 |
| Mean ditto by pendulum | 797 | 1109 | 898 |
| Which are below recoil | 35 | 36 | 23 |
| Or nearly the part | 1/23 | 1/31 | [...]/39 |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 4 | 5.7 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 4 | 5.7 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 8 | 13.0 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 8 | 12.9 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 16 | 25.9 | ||||||||||
| 8 | 16 | 26.6 | ||||||||||
| 9 | 16 | 24.9 | ||||||||||
| 10 | 16 | 26.5 | ||||||||||
| 11 | 16 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 39.9 | 22.4 | 87.7 | 12 | 690.0 | 77.78 | 40.18 | 1693 |
| 12 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 39.0 | 21.3 | 88.3 | 12 | 691.6 | 77.80 | 40.18 | 1610 |
| 13 | 16 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 41.2 | 23.1 | 88.7 | 9 | 693.2 | 77.82 | 40.18 | 1736 |
| 14 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 38.3 | 21.2 | 88.7 | 9 | 694.9 | 77.85 | 40.18 | 1603 |
| 15 | 8 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 27.9 | 21.4 | 89.2 | 8 | 696.5 | 77.88 | 40.18 | 1607 |
| 16 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 27.1 | 20.2 | 88.6 | 7 | 698.1 | 77.90 | 40.17 | 1538 |
| 17 | 8 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 27.3 | 20.5 | 88.9 | 8 | 699.8 | 77.92 | 40.17 | 1553 |
| 18 | 4 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 16.8 | 15.1 | 88.0 | 7 | 701.4 | 77.94 | 40.17 | 1159 |
| 19 | 4 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 16.7 | 14.7 | 88.3 | 6 | 703.0 | 77.96 | 40.17 | 1127 |
| 20 | 4 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 16.6 | 14.6 | 88.5 | 5 | 704.7 | 77.99 | 40.17 | 1120 |
| 21 | 2 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 9.5 | 9.4 | 88.6 | 4 | 706.3 | 78.01 | 40.16 | 722 |
| 22 | 2 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 10.7 | 10.9 | 87.8 | 6 | 707.9 | 78.03 | 40.16 | 847 |
| 23 | 2 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 9.6 | 9.4 | 88.5 | 5 | 709.6 | 78.05 | 40.16 | 727 |
| 24 | 2 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 10.8 | 11.2 | 87.7 | 711.2 | 78.08 | 40.16 | 878 | |
Length of charge of 2 oz was 2.1 inches
| 4 | 3.3 |
| 8 | 6.1 |
| 16 | 10.9 |
[161]Of the plugs every 10 inches weighed 12 ounces.
The GUN was no 2.—
It heated very little by firing.
The PENDULUM.—
It had been gutted, and repaired, by placing a ſtratum of lead, of 2 inches thick, before the iron plate, then the lead was covered with a block of wood, and the whole faced with ſheet lead.
| 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | 16 oz | |
| Mean recoil with ball | 10.15 | 16.7 | 27.43 | 39.60 |
| Ditto without | 2.50 | 5.7 | 12.95 | 25.98 |
| The difference or c = | 7.65 | 11.0 | 14.48 | 13.62 |
| Hence velocity by recoil | 840 | 1207 | 1592 | 1499 |
| Mean ditto by pendulum | 793 | 1135 | 1566 | 1660 |
| Difference | + 47 | + 72 | + 26 | − 161 |
| Or the part | 1/17 | 1/16 | 1/60 | 1/10 |
So that the recoil gives the velocity with 2, 4 and 8 ounces of powder greater, but with 16 ounces much leſs, than the velocity ſhewn by the pendulum.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | ||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | |||||
| oz | inches | ||||||||||
| 1 | 2 | 2.6 | |||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.45 | |||||||||
| 3 | 2 | 2.4 | |||||||||
| 4 | 2 | 2.45 | |||||||||
| 5 | 2 | 2.7 | |||||||||
| 6 | 2 | 2.65 | |||||||||
| 7 | 2 | 2.6 | |||||||||
| 8 | 4 | 6.3 | |||||||||
| 9 | 4 | 6.35 | |||||||||
| 10 | 4 | 6.35 | |||||||||
| 11 | 8 | 13.8 | |||||||||
| 12 | 8 | 14.0 | |||||||||
| 13 | 8 | 14.1 | |||||||||
| 14 | 16 | 28.1 | |||||||||
| 15 | 16 | 27.9 | |||||||||
| 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | 16 oz | |
| Mean length of charge | 1.9 | 3.3 | 6.2 | 11.0 |
| Mean recoil of gun | 2.65 | 6.33 | 13.97 | 28.0 |
| Ditto with greater wt | 2.48 |
The GUN no 4.—
[163]The gun was very hot before firing, with the heat of the ſun. But heated little more with firing. It was hotteſt at the muzzle, where the hand could not long bear the heat of it.
The PENDULUM had been gutted and repaired ſince the laſt day.
No balls were fired this day.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 3.0 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.7 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 2 | 2.8 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 2 | 2.75 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 4 | 6.45 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 4 | 6.25 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 4 | 6.35 | ||||||||||
| 8 | 8 | 14.4 | ||||||||||
| 9 | 8 | 14.3 | ||||||||||
| 10 | 8 | 14.5 | ||||||||||
| 11 | 16 | 29.15 | ||||||||||
| 12 | 16 | 28.25 | ||||||||||
| 13 | 16 | 29.2 | ||||||||||
| 14 | 16 | 28.3 | ||||||||||
| 15 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 29.6 | 25.8 | 89.5 | 12 | 700.0 | 77.92 | 40.17 | 1946 |
| 16 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 29.1 | 25.0 | 89.0 | 11 | 702.0 | 77.95 | 40.17 | 1902 |
| 17 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 29.1 | 25.8 | 89.5 | 10 | 704.0 | 77.98 | 40.17 | 1959 |
| 18 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 44.5 | 29.1 | 89.4 | 13 | 706.0 | 78.01 | 40.16 | 2219 |
| 19 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 43.0 | 27.0 | 89.7 | 9 | 708.0 | 78.03 | 40.16 | 2058 |
| 20 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 43.6 | 28.8 | 89.7 | 9 | 710.0 | 78.05 | 40.16 | 2207 |
[164]Of the plugs every 10 inches weighed 13½ ounces.
The GUN no 4.—Its weight and other circumſtances as uſual. It did not become near ſo hot as yeſterday.
The PENDULUM was as weighed and meaſured yeſterday, having hung unuſed.
The tape drawn out in the laſt three rounds, both of the gun and pendulum, was rather doubtful, owing to the wind blowing and en⯑tangling it.
| 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | 16 oz | |
| Mean length of charge | 1.8 | 3.4 | 5.6 | 10.8 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 29.27 | 43.70 | ||
| Ditto without | 2.81 | 6.35 | 14.40 | 28.72 |
| Difference or c = | 14.87 | 14.98 | ||
| Hence velocity by recoil | 1643 | 1656 | ||
| Mean ditto by pendulum | 1936 | 2161 | ||
| Difference, very great, | 293 | 505 | ||
| Or the part | ½ | ¼ |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.7 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.6 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 4 | 6.2 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 4 | 6.0 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 17.8 | 17.8 | 88.7 | 8 | 709.8 | 78.04 | 40.16 | 1376 |
| 6 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 17.8 | 17.4 | 86.7 | 9 | 711.3 | 78.07 | 40.16 | 1380 |
| 7 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 17.75 | 17.3 | 87.2 | 10 | 712.9 | 78.10 | 40.16 | 1368 |
| 8 | 2 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 11.0 | 12.2 | 87.8 | 7 | 714.4 | 78.12 | 40.15 | 960 |
| 9 | 2 | 16 | 12 | 1.96 | 11.25 | 12.4 | 86.8 | 7 | 715.9 | 78.15 | 40.15 | 993 |
| 10 | 2 | 16 | 12 | 1.96 | 10.9 | 11.9 | 87.3 | 5 | 717.5 | 78.18 | 40.15 | 951 |
The GUN was again no 4, and every circumſtance about it as before.
The PENDULUM the ſame as left hanging ſince yeſterday, with the addition of the balls and plugs in it.
This day's experiments a good ſet.
| 2 oz | 4 oz | |
| Mean length of charge | 1.7 | 3.24 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 11.05 | 17.78 |
| Ditto without | 2.65 | 6.10 |
| Difference, or c | 8.40 | 11.68 |
| Hence velocity by the recoil | 929 | 1295 |
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 968 | 1375 |
| Difference, gun leſs | 39 | 80 |
| Or the part | 1/24 | 1/17 |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 16 | 23.8 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 16 | 25.9 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 16 | 23.8 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 16 | 23.5 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 37.3 | 17.8 | 89.6 | 6 | 717.2 | 78.18 | 40.15 | 1379 |
| 7 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 37.3 | 18.9 | 90.5 | 6 | 718.6 | 78.20 | 40.15 | 1453 |
| 8 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 34.5 | 16.4 | 90.2 | 6 | 720.1 | 78.22 | 40.15 | 1268 |
| 9 | 12 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 31.7 | 17.7 | 89.2 | 5 | 721.6 | 78.24 | 40.15 | 1387 |
| 10 | 12 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 33.2 | 18.9 | 89.8 | 8 | 723.0 | 78.26 | 40.14 | 1477 |
| 11 | 12 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 30.8 | 17.5 | 89.8 | 8 | 724.5 | 78.28 | 40.14 | 1371 |
| 12 | 12 | 21.0 | ||||||||||
| 13 | 12 | 18.3 | ||||||||||
| 14 | 12 | 18.8 | ||||||||||
The GUN no 1.—Weight and every thing elſe as uſual.—The annular leaden weights, which fit on about the trunnions, have gradually been knocked much out of form by the ſhocks of the ſudden recoils; ſo that, not fitting cloſely, they are ſubject to ſhake, a circumſtance which pro⯑bably has occaſioned the irregularities in the recoils of this day.
The PENDULUM continued hanging ſtill. It is ſuſpected that its vibrations are not to be ſtrictly depended on with the high charges of powder; owing to the ſtriking of the balls againſt the iron plate within the block, and ſo perhaps cauſing them to rebound within it, and diſ⯑turb [167]the vibrations, which are not regular this day. After it was taken down, the pendulum was found to weigh 726lb. But, from the weight of the balls and plugs lodged in it, it ought to have weighed 732 lb. It is therefore likely that the 6 lb had been loſt, by evaporation of the moiſture, in the 4 days, which is 1½lb per day. At the beginning of each day's experiments therefore 1½lb is deducted from the weight of the pendulum, or 2lb before each of the laſt three days. And the like was done on ſome former days, for the ſame reaſon, when it appeared neceſſary.
| 12 oz | 16 oz | |
| Mean length of the charge | 8.4 | 11.1 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 31.9 | 36.4 |
| Ditto without | 19.4 | 24.25 |
| Difference, or c = | 12.5 | 12.15 |
| Hence velocity by the recoil | 1374 | 1334 |
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 1412 | 1367 |
| Difference, the gun leſs | 38 | 33 |
| Or nearly the part | 1/37 | 1/41 |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.55 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.50 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 2 | 2.50 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 16 | 24.6 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 16 | 21.8 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 16 | 24.5 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 36.0 | 19.6 | 88.3 | 8 | 663.0 | 77.35 | 40.20 | 1411 |
| 8 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 36.7 | 19.8 | 88.6 | 10 | 664.6 | 77.38 | 40.19 | 1424 |
| 9 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 10 | 16 | 28.25 | ||||||||||
| 11 | 16 | 26.4 | ||||||||||
| 12 | 16 | 24.7 | ||||||||||
| 13 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 39.1 | 23.2 | 87.8 | 11 | 666.3 | 77.41 | 40.19 | 1689 |
| 14 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 35.8 | 21.7 | 88.5 | 10 | 667.9 | 77.44 | 40.19 | 1572 |
| 15 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 37.9 | 23.3 | 91.1 | 11 | 669.6 | 77.47 | 40.19 | 1644 |
| 16 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 40.7 | 24.8 | 90.6 | 11 | 671.2 | 77.50 | 40.19 | 1765 |
| 17 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 42.4 | 24.2 | 91.3 | 10 | 672.9 | 77.53 | 40.18 | 1714 |
The PENDULUM was a new block, made of ſound dry elm, painted, and hung in the ſame frame as the former; but turned end-ways, or the ends of the fibres towards the gun; whereas the former was ſide-ways. [169]It was firmly bound round with ſtrong iron bars; but neither plates of iron nor lead were put within it. The dimenſions of the block are,
| Length from front to back | 26¾ inches |
| Depth of the face | 24¾ |
| Breadth of the ſame | 18¼ |
| Its weight with iron | 664 lb |
| Radius to tape as before | 117.8 inches |
| To center of gravity | 77.35 |
| Oſcillations per minute | 40.20 |
At the 7th and 15th rounds the balls ſtruck both in firm and ſolid wood, when their penetrations, to the hinder part of the ball, meaſured 10½ and 11 inches; ſo that the fore part penetrated 12½ inches in the firſt caſe, and 13 inches in the latter.
| Gun 1 | Gun 2 | |
| Mean length of the charge | 11.4 | 11.3 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 36.35 | 40.03 omitting no 14 |
| Ditto without | 23.63 | 26.45 |
| Difference, or c = | 12.72 | 13.58 |
| Hence velocity by the recoil | 1399 | 1497 |
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 1419 | 1676 |
| Difference, the recoil leſs | 20 | 179 |
| Or nearly the part | 1/71 | 1/9 |
58. N. B. In this day's experiments, and thoſe that follow, as long as the ſame block of wood is uſed, the theorems for correcting the place of the center of gravity, and the number of oſcillations per minute, as laid down at Art. 44, will be a little altered, when the weight of the pendu⯑lum is varied at the center of the block. The reaſon of which is, that now the diſtance to the center is 88.7, which before was only 88.3. [170]And by uſing 88.7 for 88.3 in the theorems in that article, thoſe theo⯑rems will become
Had i been = 89.3, the new value of g and n would have been
And theſe laſt are the proper theorems for this day's experiments, the mean diſtance of the points ſtruck being nearly 89.3.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.6 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 16 | 27.6 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 16 | 27.9 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 41.8 | 26.8 | 87.0 | 12 | 672.9 | 77.53 | 40.18 | 1992 |
| 6 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 36.3 | 23.1 | 86.2 | 13 | 674.5 | 77.55 | 40.18 | D |
| 7 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 42.3 | 11 | ||||||
| 8 | 16 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 41.0 | 25.2 | 84.7 | 11 | 677.8 | 77.58 | 40.18 | 1940 |
| 9 | 8 | 14.2 | ||||||||||
| 10 | 8 | 13.5 | ||||||||||
| 11 | 8 | 13.6 | ||||||||||
| 12 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 27.6 | 22.4 | 84.4 | 10 | 679.4 | 77.60 | 40.18 | 1735 |
| 13 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 28.8 | 25.8 | 90.3 | 681.0 | 77.63 | 40.18 | 1872 | |
[171]The GUN was no 3. In the 5, 6, 7, 8, and 12th rounds, the gun had from 15′ to 20′ elevation. At the 6th round an uncommon large quantity of powder came out unfired, ſo as to ſcatter a great way over the ground, and beſpatter the face of the ſcreen and pendulum very much; which was not the caſe in any other round. And this may ac⯑count for the ſmaller arcs deſcribed at that number.
The PENDULUM was in the ſame condition as it had been left hang⯑ing after the laſt day's experiments, with all the balls and plugs in it. After this day's experiments, its weight was found to be 681 lb, inclu⯑ding all the balls and plugs, except one which flew out behind the pen⯑dulum at the 7th round, occaſioned by this ball ſtriking in the ſame hole as no 6, and knocking it out. This ball, which came out, was quite whole and perfect; it was black on the hinder part with the pow⯑der, but rubbed bright before with the friction in paſſing through the wood. The tape of the pendulum alſo broke at this round, ſo that the vibration could not be meaſured.
The value of i, or the mean among the diſtances of the point ſtruck this day and the laſt is 88.
Of the plugs, this day and the laſt, 10 inches weighed 9 oz.
| 8 oz | 16 oz | |
| Mean length of the charge | 6.0 | 11.1 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 28.2 | 41.7 |
| Ditto without | 13.77 | 27.75 |
| Difference, or c = | 14.43 | 13.95 |
| Hence velocity by the recoil | 1594 | 1542 |
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 1803 | 1966 |
| Difference, the recoil leſs | 209 | 424 |
| Or nearly the part | 1/9 | ⅕ |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.7 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.55 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 2 | 2.6 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 4 | 6.55 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 4 | 6.1 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 4 | 6.8 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 17.4 | 17.8 | 88.1 | 10 | 663.0 | 77.35 | 40.20 | 1281 |
| 8 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 18.3 | 19.0 | 88.3 | 9 | 664.7 | 77.37 | 40.19 | 1369 |
| 9 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 18.2 | 18.8 | 88.0 | 8 | 666.3 | 77.40 | 40.19 | 1363 |
| 10 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 17.9 | 18.0 | 87.2 | 9 | 667.8 | 77.42 | 40.19 | 1321 |
| 11 | 2 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 10.9 | 12.4 | 87.8 | 8 | 669.4 | 77.44 | 40.19 | 906 |
| 12 | 2 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 11.2 | 12.5 | 85.8 | 7 | 670.9 | 77.47 | 40.19 | 937 |
| 13 | 2 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 11.0 | 12.5 | 86.1 | 7 | 672.4 | 77.49 | 40.19 | 936 |
The GUN no 3, with every circumſtance as uſual; except that in the laſt four rounds it had 15′ elevation.
The PENDULUM had been repaired, the balls and plugs taken out, a ſquare hole cut quite through, and a ſound piece fitted in; and the face covered with ſheet lead as before.
| Its weight at the beginning | 663 lb |
| To the center of gravity | 77.35 inches |
| To the tape | 117.8 |
[173]The vibration at no 8 a little doubtful, as the tape broke.
The plugs weighed 1 oz per inch.
The value of i, or the mean diſtance of the points ſtruck, 87.3.
| Weight of Powder | 2 oz. | 4 oz. |
| Mean length of the charge | 1.9 | 3.2 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 11.03 | 17.95 |
| Ditto without | 2.62 | 6.48 |
| Difference, or c = | 8.41 | 11.47 |
| Hence velocity by the recoil | 928 | 1266 |
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 926 | 1334 |
| Difference, recoil leſs, | −2 | −68 |
| Or nearly the part | 1/4 [...] | 1/ [...]9 |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.5 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.2 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 2 | 2.45 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 4 | 5.8 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 4 | 5.8 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 4 | 5.7 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 8 | 12.1 | ||||||||||
| 8 | 8 | 12.1 | ||||||||||
| 9 | 8 | 12.2 | ||||||||||
| 10 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 24.5 | 18.0 | 88.3 | 5 | 671.4 | 77.48 | 40.19 | 1315 |
| 11 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 25.1 | 19.3 | 89.5 | 8 | 672.8 | 77.50 | 40.19 | 1394 |
| 12 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 24.8 | 18.1 | 86.8 | 6 | 674.3 | 77.52 | 40.19 | 1351 |
| 13 | 4 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 15.85 | 14.65 | 88.5 | 7 | 675.7 | 77.54 | 40.19 | 1075 |
| 14 | 4 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 15.7 | 14.1 | 87.4 | 6 | 677.2 | 77.56 | 40.19 | 1050 |
| 15 | 4 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 16.35 | 15.4 | 88.5 | 3 | 678.6 | 77.59 | 40.18 | 1136 |
| 16 | 2 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 10.0 | 10.75 | 89.3 | 4 | 679.8 | 77.61 | 40.18 | 787 |
| 17 | 2 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 9.9 | 10.6 | 89.8 | 3 | 681.1 | 77.63 | 40.18 | 774 |
| 18 | 2 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 10.1 | 10.65 | 88.0 | 3 | 682.3 | 77.65 | 40.18 | 795 |
The GUN, no 1. Weight and other circumſtances as uſual.
The PENDULUM as left hanging ſince Monday. Its radius, &c. as uſual.—The value of i, or the mean diſtance among the points ſtruck this day and the former, is 88.0.
The plugs weighed 1 oz per inch.
[175]
| Weight of Powder | 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz |
| Mean length of the charge | 1.9 | 3.2 | 5.7 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 10.00 | 15.97 | 24.8 |
| Ditto without | 2.38 | 5.77 | 12.1 |
| Difference, or c = | 7.62 | 10.20 | 12.7 |
| Hence velocity by the recoil | 838 | 1122 | 1396 |
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 785 | 1087 | 1353 |
| Difference, the recoil more, | 53 | 35 | 43 |
| Or nearly the part | 1/15 | 1/31 | 1/31 |
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| wt | diam | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 2.65 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.7 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 2 | 2.65 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 4 | 6.2 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 4 | 6.1 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 4 | 6.0 | ||||||||||
| 7 | 8 | 13.7 | ||||||||||
| 8 | 8 | 13.1 | ||||||||||
| 9 | 8 | 14.1 | ||||||||||
| 10 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 27.0 | 21.2 | 87.4 | 4 | 681.2 | 77.63 | 40.18 | 1590 |
| 11 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 27.1 | 21.3 | 88.1 | 6 | 682.5 | 77.65 | 40.18 | 1589 |
| 12 | 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 26.3 | 20.2 | 86.7 | 12 | 683.9 | 77.67 | 40.18 | 1535 |
| 13 | 4 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 17.3 | 16.6 | 87.5 | 9 | 685.7 | 77.70 | 40.18 | 1253 |
| 14 | 4 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 17.1 | 16.7 | 89.9 | 8 | 687.3 | 77.72 | 40.18 | 1230 |
| 15 | 4 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 17.1 | 16.7 | 89.9 | 7 | 688.8 | 77.75 | 40.17 | 1233 |
| 16 | 2 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 10.3 | 11.5 | 90.1 | 4 | 690.4 | 77.77 | 40.17 | 849 |
| 17 | 2 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 10.45 | 11.7 | 90.3 | 3 | 691.7 | 77.80 | 40.17 | 864 |
| 18 | 2 | 16 | 12½ | 1.96 | 10.3 | 11.5 | 89.9 | 2 | 692.9 | 77.82 | 40.17 | 855 |
[176]The GUN no 2. In the laſt 5 rounds it had about 10′ depreſſion.
The PENDULUM the ſame as left hanging ſince yeſterday. After the experiments were concluded to-day, it weighed 694 lb.—The plugs weighed 1 oz per inch.
The weight of balls and plugs lodged in the block, theſe laſt three days, was 36 lb; which added to 663, the weight at the beginning, makes 699: but it weighed at the end only 694; ſo that it loſt 5 lb of its weight in the 4 days, or 1¼ lb per day on a medium.
The value of i, or the mean among the diſtance of the points ſtruck theſe three days, is 88.3.
| 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | |
| Mean length of the charge | 1.8 | 3.1 | 5.7 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 10.35 | 17.17 | 26.80 |
| Ditto without | 2.67 | 6.10 | 13.63 |
| Difference or c = | 7.68 | 11.07 | 13.17 |
| Hence velocity by the recoil | 846 | 1220 | 1452 |
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 856 | 1239 | 1571 |
| Difference, the gun leſs, | 10 | 19 | 119 |
| Or nearly the part | 1/86 | 1/65 | 1/13 |
| No | Powder | Vibration of | |||
| gun | |||||
| oz | |||||
| 1 | 2 | 2.3 | |||
| 2 | 2 | 2.5 | |||
| 3 | 2 | 2.35 | |||
| 4 | 4 | 5.25 | |||
| 5 | 4 | 5.05 | |||
| 6 | 4 | 5.4 | |||
| 7 | 8 | 11.65 | |||
| 8 | 8 | 11.9 | |||
| 9 | 8 | 12.05 | |||
| 10 | 12 | 17.3 | |||
| 11 | 12 | 19.3 | |||
| 12 | 12 | 18.7 | |||
| 13 | 12 | 17.1 | |||
| 18 | 16 | 25.3 | |||
| 15 | 16 | 23.3 | |||
| 16 | 16 | 24.0 | |||
| 17 | 20 | 28.5 | |||
| 18 | 20 | 28.2 | |||
| 19 | 20 | 24.8 | |||
The GUN was no 1.
The laſt no very uncertain; the tape, being very wet, twiſted, and was entangled.
| 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | 12 oz | 16 oz | 20 oz | |
| Mean length of charge | 1.9 | 3.2 | 5.6 | 8.2 | 10.6 | 13.2 |
| Mean recoil, omitting no 19, | 2.38 | 5.23 | 11.9 | 18.1 | 24.2 | 28.2 |
| No | Powder | Ball's wt | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Velocity of the ball | |||||
| wt | ht | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | lbs | inches | feet | |||
| 1 | ||||||||||||
| 2 | ||||||||||||
| 3 | ||||||||||||
| 4 | ||||||||||||
| 5 | ||||||||||||
| 6 | ||||||||||||
| 7 | 24 | 14.5 | 16 | 12½ | 38.6 | 17.3 | 90.8 | 14 | 655.0 | 77.21 | 40.21 | 1194 |
| 8 | 32 | 21.6 | 16 | 12½ | 44.0 | 13.0 | 92.9 | 8 | 656.8 | 77.24 | 40.20 | 880 |
| 9 | 36 | 24.4 | 16 | 12½ | 45.8 | 12.3 | 92.5 | 7 | 658.3 | 77.27 | 40.20 | 838 |
| 10 | 39 | 27.2 | 16 | 12½ | 47.5 | went | over | 659.7 | 77.29 | 40.20 | ||
| 11 | 20 | 13.3 | 16 | 12½ | 36.7 | 15.5 | 85.8 | 11 | 660.8 | 77.29 | 40.20 | 1144 |
| 12 | 12 | 8.1 | 16 | 12½ | 29.9 | 18.75 | 86.8 | 11 | 662.5 | 77.32 | 40.20 | 1371 |
| 13 | 14 | 9.3 | 16 | 12½ | 27.3 | 16.2 | 85.8 | 11 | 664.2 | 77.35 | 40.20 | 1202 D |
| 14 | 10 | 6.9 | 16 | 13 | 28.5 | 19.15 | 86.6 | 10 | 665.9 | 77.37 | 40.20 | 1409 |
| 15 | 14 | 10.1 | 16 | 13 | 31.2 | 19.0 | 89.5 | 10 | 667.5 | 77.40 | 40.19 | 1357 |
| 16 | 16 | 11.1 | 16 | 13 | 32.7 | 18.0 | 91.4 | 5 | 669.1 | 77.43 | 40.19 | 1262 D |
| 17 | 8 | 5.7 | 16 | 13 | 26.4 | 20.05 | 89.7 | 9 | 670.4 | 77.45 | 40.19 | 1436 |
| 18 | 6 | 4.6 | 16 | 13 | 20.7 | 17.0 | 88.5 | 9 | 671.9 | 77.48 | 40.19 | 1237 |
| 19 | 12 | 8.4 | 16 | 13 | 29.0 | 18.55 | 89.9 | 7 | 673.4 | 77.51 | 40.19 | 1333 |
| 20 | 10 | 6.9 | 16 | 13 | 28.8 | 20.05 | 90.5 | 6 | 674.8 | 77.53 | 40.19 | 1434 |
| 21 | 14 | 9.6 | 16 | 13 | 32.2 | 18.5 | 91.1 | 6 | 676.2 | 77.56 | 40.19 | 1318 |
| 22 | 8 | 5.5 | 16 | 13 | 25.3 | 18.8 | 89.9 | 6 | 677.6 | 77.59 | 40.18 | 1360 |
| 23 | 12 | 8.4 | 16 | 13 | 31.1 | 19.8 | 90.9 | 6 | 678.9 | 77.61 | 40.18 | 1420 |
| 24 | 10 | 7.0 | 16 | 13 | 28.6 | 19.35 | 89.7 | 6 | 680.2 | 77.64 | 40.18 | 1409 |
| 25 | 8 | 5.7 | 16 | 13 | 25.4 | 18.5 | 89.5 | 5 | 681.5 | 77.67 | 40.18 | 1354 |
| 26 | 16 | 10.7 | 16 | 13 | 31.2 | 16.75 | 89.3 | 5 | 682.8 | 77.69 | 40.18 | 1231 D |
| 27 | 16 | 11.1 | 16 | 13 | 31.5 | 17.2 | 91.4 | 5 | 684.1 | 77.72 | 40.18 | 1238 D |
| 28 | 14 | 9.7 | 16 | 13 | 33.4 | 20.0 | 90.5 | 4 | 685.4 | 77.75 | 40.17 | 1457 |
[179]The GUN no 1. The charge of powder was gradually increaſed till the gun became quite full at no 10, when there was juſt room for half the ball to lie within the muzzle; which being too ſhort a length to give a direction to the ball, it miſſed the pendulum, going over and juſt ſtriking the top of the ſcreen frame, about 21½ inches above the line of direction, which, though a very ſlender piece of wood, turned the ball up into a ſtill higher direction, in which it ſtruck the bank over the pen⯑dulum, and entered it ſloping, though but a little way: all which cir⯑cumſtances ſhew that the force of the ball was but ſmall. And even at the 9th round, when the center of the ball was about 3 inches within the gun, the ball ſtruck the pendulum 5 inches out of the line of direction. The gun was ſcarce ever ſenſibly heated.
The diameter of the balls 1.96 inches.
The PENDULUM had been gutted, and had received a new core. It was hung up in the morning of the day before yeſterday, when it weighed 659 lb. And when taken down this evening it weighed only 686 lb, which is near 4 lb leſs than the balls and plugs ought to make it; and which 4 pounds muſt have evaporated in the 3 days.
The plugs weighed ⅞ of an ounce to the inch.
The value of i, or mean point ſtruck, 89.7.
All the three rounds with 16 oz are very doubtful, and ſeem to be too low, from ſome unknown cauſe.
| Powder | Recoil | Veloc. | |
| wt | ht | gun | ball |
| 8 | 5.6 | 25.7 | 1383 |
| 10 | 6.9 | 28.6 | 1417 |
| 12 | 8.3 | 30.0 | 1375 |
| 14 | 9.7 | 32.3 | 1333 |
| 16 | 11.0 | 31.8 D | 1243 D |
| 20 | 13.3 | 36.7 | |
| 24 | 14.5 | 38.6 | |
| 32 | 21.6 | 44.0 | |
| 36 | 24.4 | 45.8 | |
| 39 | 27.2 | 47.5 | |
| No | Powder | Ball's wt | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | ||||||
| wt | ht | gun | pend | p | g | n | |||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | |||
| 1 | 8 | 5.9 | 16 | 13 | 27.6 | 23.8 | 89.3 | 14 | 643.0 | 77.00 | 40.22 | 1632 | |
| 2 | 10 | 7.2 | 16 | 13 | 29.5 | 23.0 | 88.7 | 15 | 644.9 | 77.03 | 40.22 | 1593 | |
| 3 | 12 | 8.4 | 16 | 12½ | 32.0 | 22.0 | 88.7 | 15 | 646.8 | 77.06 | 40.21 | 1532 | |
| 4 | 14 | 9.4 | 16 | 12½ | 32.2 | 21.3 | 88.5 | 15 | 648.8 | 77.09 | 40.21 | 1491 | D |
| 5 | 16 | 11.3 | 16 | 12½ | 39.4 | 23.6 | 88.3 | 13 | 650.8 | 77.12 | 40.21 | 1662 | |
| 6 | 18 | 12.3 | 16 | 12½ | 37.1 | 21.0 | 89.0 | 12 | 652.6 | 77.16 | 40.21 | 1472 | |
| 7 | 20 | 13.2 | 16 | 12 | 39.8 | 21.9 | 91.6 | 17 | 654.4 | 77.19 | 40.21 | 1499 | |
| 8 | 22 | 15.1 | 16 | 12 | 41.5 | 21.7 | 91.5 | 11 | 656.5 | 77.22 | 40.20 | 1492 | D |
| 9 | 24 | 15.8 | 16 | 12 | 42.6 | 21.3 | 91.6 | 10 | 658.2 | 77.25 | 40.20 | 1468 | |
| 10 | 28 | 18.9 | 16 | 12 | 44.2 | 18.1 | 90.5 | 10 | 659.8 | 77.28 | 40.20 | 1266 | D |
| 11 | 32 | 22.1 | 16 | 12 | 52.8 | 20.3 | 90.8 | 9 | 661.5 | 77.31 | 40.20 | 1419 | |
| 12 | 8 | 5.5 | 16 | 12 | 27.0 | 22.2 | 90.5 | 8 | 663.1 | 77.35 | 40.20 | 1562 | |
| 13 | 10 | 7.0 | 16 | 12 | 30.5 | 22.9 | 90.0 | 7 | 664.6 | 77.38 | 40.20 | 1624 | |
| 14 | 12 | 8.1 | 16 | 12 | 32.4 | 21.8 | 85.2 | 15 | 666.1 | 77.41 | 40.19 | 1638 | |
| 15 | 14 | 9.3 | 16 | 12 | 32.9 | 20.4 | 86.4 | 15 | 668.0 | 77.44 | 40.19 | 1517 | |
| 16 | 16 | 10.9 | 16 | 12 | 39.0 | 22.2 | 85.8 | 13 | 670.0 | 77.47 | 40.19 | 1667 | |
| 17 | 8 | 5.5 | 16 | 12 | 25.2 | 19.6 | 87.9 | 15 | 671.8 | 77.50 | 40.19 | 1441 | D |
| 18 | 8 | 5.5 | 16 | 12 | 26.3 | 20.8 | 89.2 | 13 | 673.6 | 77.53 | 40.19 | 1512 | |
| 19 | 10 | 6.7 | 16 | 12 | 26.3 | 19.6 | 89.1 | 13 | 675.4 | 77.56 | 40.18 | 1431 | D |
| 20 | 12 | 8.2 | 16 | 12 | 32.7 | 22.8 | 88.8 | 11 | 677.2 | 77.59 | 40.18 | 1675 | |
| 21 | 14 | 9.1 | 16 | 12 | 35.1 | 17.7 | 89.0 | 11 | 678.9 | 77.63 | 40.18 | 1302 | D |
| 22 | 16 | 10.4 | 16 | 12 | 32.8 | 15.6 | 89.1 | 8 | 680.6 | 77.66 | 40.18 | 1149 | D |
| 23 | 6 | 4.4 | 16 | 12 | 22.8 | 14.5 | 89.1 | 682.1 | 77.69 | 40.18 | 1070 | D | |
The GUN was no 2.
The diameter of the balls 1.96 inches.
[181]The PENDULUM had been repaired with a new core, but of very ſoft and damp wood. It was hung up yeſterday morning, when it weighed 653 lb. And when taken down this evening it weighed only 678 lb with all the balls and plugs, the whole ball which came out behind, as well as the broken pieces of the wood and balls which flew out in the latter rounds, being collected and weighed with it; which is about 15½ lb leſs than it ought to be; ſo that about 15½ lb has been loſt by evaporation in the ſpace of 30 hours, or about half a pound an hour.
At nos 4, 8, 10 the tape of the pendulum entangled and broke, which rendered thoſe vibrations doubtful, as marked D. Some other rounds are marked doubtful, from ſome other cauſe, perhaps the badneſs of the wood in the pendulum, which ſplit very much; from which circum⯑ſtance part of the force of the ball might be loſt by the lateral preſſure.
The plugs weighed 14 oz to 15 inches.
The value of i, or the mean point ſtruck, 89.5 inches.
The penetration at the 1ſt and 7th rounds, which were made in freſh parts of the wood, were from 19 to 20 inches; ſo that the fore part of the ball penetrated about 21½ inches in this ſoft wood.
| Powder | Recoil | Veloc. |
| 8 | 26.7 | 1569 |
| 10 | 30.0 | 1608 |
| 12 | 32.4 | 1615 |
| 14 | 33.4 D | 1517 D |
| 16 | 36.8 D | 1664 D |
| 18 | 37.1 | |
| 20 | 39.8 | |
| 22 | 41.5 | |
| 24 | 42.6 | |
| 28 | 44.2 | |
| 32 | 52.8 D |
[182]But theſe mediums are not much to be depended on, as the velocities are all very irregular. It is, in particular, highly probable that the ve⯑locity here found for 14 oz of powder is too ſmall, and that for 16 oz too great.
| No | Powder | Ball's wt | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | ||||||
| wt | ht | gun | pend | p | g | n | |||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | |||
| 1 | 2 | 2.8 | |||||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 2.75 | |||||||||||
| 3 | 6 | 4.5 | 16 | 11½ | 22.6 | 20.5 | 88.9 | 7 | 654.0 | 77.20 | 40.21 | 1448 | |
| 4 | 8 | 5.6 | 16 | 11½ | 26.9 | 22.1 | 89.1 | 10 | 655.4 | 77.22 | 40.21 | 1561 | |
| 5 | 10 | 6.9 | 16 | 11½ | 30.2 | 23.4 | 91.3 | 8 | 656.9 | 77.25 | 40.20 | 1618 | |
| 6 | 12 | 8.3 | 16 | 11½ | 33.3 | 23.9 | 90.6 | 9 | 658.3 | 77.27 | 40.20 | 1669 | |
| 7 | 14 | 9.5 | 16 | 11½ | 37.4 | 24.7 | 88.9 | 10 | 659.8 | 77.30 | 40.20 | 1763 | |
| 8 | 16 | 10.7 | 16 | 11½ | 35.9 | 21.5 | 87.3 | 9 | 661.3 | 77.32 | 40.20 | 1566 | D |
| 9 | 16 | 11.0 | 16 | 11½ | 40.1 | 23.5 | 87.8 | 8 | 662.8 | 77.35 | 40.20 | 1707 | |
| 10 | 18 | 12.1 | 16 | 11½ | 32.7 | 18.3 | 87.1 | 6 | 664.2 | 77.37 | 40.20 | 1343 | D |
| 11 | 18 | 12.2 | 16 | 11½ | 39.5 | 21.9 | 87.7 | 12 | 665.5 | 77.40 | 40.20 | 1598 | |
| 12 | 20 | 13.0 | 16 | 11 | 42.7 | 23.4 | 91.8 | 10 | 667.1 | 77.43 | 40.19 | 1639 | |
| 13 | 14 | 9.6 | 16 | 11 | 21.6 | 89.3 | 9 | 668.6 | 77.46 | 40.19 | 1561 | ||
The GUN no 2.—At the laſt round the tape broke, ſo the recoil could not be meaſured. No• 8 and 10 are plainly both irregular, the recoils being greatly deficient: the vibrations of the pendulum might perhaps be defective by the balls being reſiſted ſideways by the wood, or by [183]changing their direction within the block; but there is no cauſe which I can ſuſpect for the defective recoils of the gun, as all the circumſtances were alike in every caſe, and the heights of the charges ſhew that there was no miſtake in the quantity of powder.—At the laſt firing the vent had a ſmall channel blown in it, though the gun was no where very hot.
The PENDULUM had received a new core of ſound dry elm, and weighed this morning, when it was hung up, 654 lb.
The diameter of the balls 1.96 inches.
The plugs weighed 6¼ oz to 8 inches.
The value of i, or mean point ſtruck, 89.1.
The firſt penetration was 12 inches, meaſured behind the ball, and conſequently the fore part penetrated 14 inches.
Mean recoil of gun and velocity of ball:
| Powder | Recoil | Veloc. |
| 6 | 22.6 | 1448 |
| 8 | 26.9 | 1561 |
| 10 | 30.2 | 1618 |
| 12 | 33.3 | 1669 |
| 14 | 37.4 | 1662 |
| 16 | 38.0 | 1637 |
| 18 | 39.5 | 1598 |
| 20 | 42.7 | 1639 |
| No | Powder | Balls wt | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. of the ball | |||||
| wt | ht | gun | pend. | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||
| 1 | 2 | 1.9 | 2.4 | |||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 1.9 | 2.6 | |||||||||
| 3 | 10 | 7.1 | 16 | 14 | 27.5 | 19.4 | 89.6 | 6 | 669.0 | 77.46 | 40.19 | 1383 |
| 4 | 12 | 8.4 | 16 | 14 | 31.9 | 20.4 | 88.7 | 6 | 670.3 | 77.48 | 40.19 | 1472 |
| 5 | 8 | 5.8 | 16 | 14 | 25.3 | 18.7 | 88.8 | 6 | 671.6 | 77.51 | 40.19 | 1351 |
| 6 | 14 | 9.3 | 16 | 14 | 32.7 | 19.4 | 88.9 | 7 | 672.9 | 77.53 | 40.19 | 1403 |
| 7 | 6 | 4.6 | 16 | 14 | 21.6 | 18.5 | 90.3 | 6 | 674.3 | 77.55 | 40.19 | 1320 |
| 8 | 10 | 6.9 | 16 | 14 | 27.5 | 19.8 | 91.2 | 7 | 675.6 | 77.58 | 40.19 | 1403 |
| 9 | 12 | 8.3 | 16 | 14 | 29.5 | 19.9 | 92.2 | 5 | 677.0 | 77.60 | 40.18 | 1398 |
| 10 | 8 | 5.7 | 16 | 14 | 25.3 | 18.9 | 90.2 | 6 | 678.3 | 77.62 | 40.18 | 1360 |
| 11 | 14 | 9.6 | 16 | 14 | 32.6 | 19.7 | 91.2 | 6 | 679.6 | 77.65 | 40.18 | 1405 |
| 12 | 6 | 4.4 | 16 | 14 | 21.9 | 18.0 | 87.0 | 7 | 680.9 | 77.67 | 40.18 | 1349 |
| 13 | 10 | 6.9 | 16 | 14 | 28.7 | 18.8 | 86.5 | 7 | 682.3 | 77.69 | 40.18 | 1420 |
| 14 | 12 | 8.4 | 16 | 14 | 31.7 | 20.0 | 87.9 | 6 | 683.7 | 77.71 | 40.18 | 1490 |
| 15 | 8 | 6.0 | 16 | 14 | 26.4 | 19.4 | 88.0 | 7 | 685.0 | 77.74 | 40.17 | 1447 |
| 16 | 14 | 9.3 | 16 | 14 | 32.2 | 18.4 | 86.5 | 7 | 686.4 | 77.76 | 40.17 | 1399 |
| 17 | 6 | 4.3 | 16 | 14 | 21.7 | 17.9 | 89.2 | 5 | 687.8 | 77.78 | 40.17 | 1323 |
The PENDULUM was the ſame as it hung ſince yeſterday, with all the balls in it; but the other end of it was turned, which bore the fi [...]ings very well, the core being of ſound dry wood. At the end of the experiments this day the pendulum weighed 689 lb, which is only 1 lb [185]leſs than it ought to be by the addition of the balls and plugs to the firſt weight; ſo little was it leſs of weight by evaporation, owing to the dry⯑neſs of the wood.
The diameter of the balls 1.96 inches.
The plugs weighed 6½ oz to 8 inches.
The value of i, or mean point ſtruck, 89.1 inches.
The firſt penetration, being in ſound wood, was 14¼ inches to the fore part of the ball.
This ſet of experiments, as well as thoſe of the three preceding days, were made to determine the beſt charge, or that which gives the greateſt velocity.
This is a good ſet of experiments, and the Mean recoil, and velocity of the ball by the pendulum, are as follows:
| Powder | Recoil | Veloc. |
| 6 | 21.7 | 1331 |
| 8 | 25.6 | 1386 |
| 10 | 27.9 | 1402 |
| 12 | 31.0 | 1453 |
| 14 | 32.5 | 1402 |
which velocities, as well as the recoils, are found by adding thoſe of each ſort together, and dividing by the number of them, as below:
| 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 |
| 1320 | 1351 | 1383 | 1472 | 1403 |
| 1349 | 1360 | 1403 | 1398 | 1405 |
| 1323 | 1447 | 1420 | 1490 | 1399 |
| 3) 3992 | 4158 | 4206 | 4360 | 4207 |
| means 1331 | 1386 | 1402 | 1453 | 1402 |
where the velocity with 12 oz is greateſt.
IN the courſe of laſt year's operations we experienced ſeveral incon⯑veniences from ſome parts of our apparatus, which we determined to remedy if poſſible. Theſe regarded chiefly the time-pieces, the axes of vibration, and the method of meaſuring by the tape. For meaſuring the time of a certain number of vibrations, we united the uſe of a ſecond ſtop watch with a ſimple half-ſecond pendulum, made of a leaden bullet ſuſpended by a ſilken thread, which did not always agree together. Again, the axes of the gun and pendulum frames were not found to be ſo devoid of friction as might be wiſhed. But, above all, the chief cauſe of diſſatisfaction, was the method of meaſuring the extent of the vibrations by means of the tape; which was, notwithſtanding all poſ⯑ſible care and precaution, ſtill ſubject to much irregularity, by being wetted by rain, or blown aſide by the wind, or otherwiſe entangled, which rendered the meaſurements doubtful and irregular.
The preceding part of this year therefore was employed in correcting theſe and other ſmaller imperfections in the apparatus. To our time-pieces we added a peculiar one, which meaſures time to 40th parts of a ſecond.—Next, by a happy contrivance, the friction of the axes was almoſt intirely taken off. This was effected by means of ſockets of a peculiar conſtruction, for the axes to work in. Firſt imagine the half of a ſhort cylinder, of 2 or 3 inches long, cut lengthways through the axis, and of a diameter a very little more than the ends of the axis that are intended to work in it: if this were all, it is evident that the axis, in [187]vibrating, would touch this ſocket in one line only, becauſe their diame⯑ters were unequal. Next imagine the inſide of this ſocket to be gra⯑dually ground down towards each end, from nothing in the middle; ſo that the inſide reſembled a tube having its two ends bent downwards, and riſing higheſt in the middle. Then it is evident that the axis will touch the ſocket in this one middle point only. And farther, the under ſides of the axis itſelf were ground a little, to bring the undermoſt line to an edge, ſomething like the pivots of a ſcale beam. The conſe⯑quence was, that the friction was not ſenſible in a great number of vi⯑brations; and hereafter we commonly made the gun and pendulum vibrate for juſt 10 minutes, and divided the counted number of vibra⯑tions by 10, for the mean number per minute—And for meaſuring the arcs of vibration more certainly and accurately, we have conſtructed a ſtrong wooden circular arch, of about 4 feet in length, cut out to a radius of juſt 10 feet. This arch is divided into chords of equal parts, each the 1000th part of the radius, or 12/100th parts of an inch, as before deſcribed in Art. 16. This arch being placed 10 feet below, and con⯑centric with the axis, and the groove in the middle of it filled with the ſoft compoſition of ſoap and wax, the ſtylette, or ſmall ſharp ſpear, traces in the groove the extent of the vibration, and the correſponding diviſions on each ſide of the groove ſhew the length of the chord vibra⯑ted. And as theſe chords are in 1000th parts of the radius, the value of r, in the theorem for the velocity of the ball, will be 1000 for all the following experiments; and then that theorem will become v = 59/96 × p+b/bin gc by the pendulum, and v = 59/96 × Ggc/bin by the recoil of the gun. Or v = 12.742 × c / b or 51/4 × c / b by the gun no 2, when we ſubſtitute the values of G, g, i, n, ſpecified in Art. 36. And farther, when b = 1.047, it is v = 12⅙c.
[188]The apparatus having been prepared, we employed the three days, July 21, July 26, and Auguſt 3, in hanging it up, and in weighing, meaſuring, and adjuſting all the parts, and trying them by firing a few rounds with powder only. The 4 rounds fired on the firſt of thoſe days, of 4 ounces each, with the gun no 1, weighing 917 lb, gave 56 at the firſt round, and at each of the other three 57 diviſions on the meaſuring arc, for the recoil of the gun.
| No | Powder | Weight of | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| ball | gun | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | lb | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 2 | 478 | 55 | |||||||||
| 2 | 2 | 478 | 55 | |||||||||
| 3 | 2 | 478 | 57 | |||||||||
| 4 | 2 | 478 | 57 | |||||||||
| 5 | 4 | 478 | 122 | |||||||||
| 6 | 8 | 478 | 122 | |||||||||
| 7 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 478 | 426 | 166 | 88.9 | 9 | 631.5 | 76.79 | 40.23 | 1313 |
| 8 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 478 | 387 | 151 | 89.3 | 5 | 632.8 | 76.81 | 40.23 | 1192D |
| 9 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 478 | 426 | 164 | 88.9 | 8 | 634.0 | 76.83 | 40.23 | 1303 |
| 10 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 650 | 279 | 158 | 89.2 | 7 | 635.3 | 76.85 | 40.23 | 1254 |
| 11 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 650 | 290 | 160 | 88.0 | 8 | 636.6 | 76.87 | 40.23 | 1291 |
| 12 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 917 | 193 | 157 | 87.3 | 9 | 637.9 | 76.90 | 40.22 | 1280 |
| 13 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 917 | 199 | 162 | 86.9 | 9 | 639.1 | 76.92 | 40.22 | 1329 |
| 14 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 917 | 85 | 0 | ||||||
| 15 | 6 | 1 | 10 | 917 | 104 | 20 | 82.3 | 640.1 | 76.94 | 40.22 | ||
| omitting no 8, the mean is | 1295 | |||||||||||
Here, and in all the future days, the chords of vibration, of both gun and pendulum, are expreſſed in 1000th parts of the radius.
[189]The GUN was no 1.—We began this day with the weight of the gun and its iron frame only, without any of the leaden weights. Then the one ſet of weights was put on at no 10, and the other at no 12. This was done to try the effects of different weights of gun on the velocity of the ball, experimentally to correct a common error which had been adopted from time immemorial, by profeſſional men, namely, that heavier guns, caeteris paribus, give the greater velocities. The erroneouſneſs of which opinion is proved by the experiments of this and ſome of the fol⯑lowing days. And it is needleſs to prove a priori to ſcientific men, that the difference in the effects cannot be rendered ſenſible by any meaſure⯑ments which we can make of the velocity.
The PENDULUM was the block of laſt year, with a new core, and a facing of ſheet lead. Its weight, taken this morning, was 627 lb.
The plugs weighed 7 ounces to 11 inches, on an average; which proportion may always be uſed in future, at leaſt till another be mentioned.
The 8th no is doubtful, and is omitted in the medium.
The 14th was with powder only, like the firſt ſix. And the 15th was without ball, having only a wad made of junk, weighing 10z 10dr. This made a ſmall impreſſion, of about half an inch deep, in the face of the pendulum, and rebounded back. And it ſtruck the pendulum at more than 6 inches above the line of direction.
Note, the center of the pendulum, as before, is at 88.7 inches below the axis. And the value of i, for the mean diſtance of the points ſtruck, is 88.4.
By comparing together the firſt 6 rounds, which are all with the ſame weight of gun, we find that the mean proportion of the recoil, with the different charges, without balls, is as follows:
| 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz |
| 56 | 122 | 252 |
the recoils being rather in a higher proportion than the charge of powder.
[190]If we compare the mean of the firſt 4, with 2 oz of powder and 478 lb weight of gun, with the mean of July 21, with 4 oz of powder and 917 lb weight of gun, we ſhall obtain as follows:
| Charge | 20z | 40z |
| Weight of gun | 478 lb | 917 lb |
| Recoil | 56 | 57 |
So that, in this inſtance, the leſs charge gives a recoil in proportion to the greater charge, a little above the direct ratio of the weight of pow⯑der, and inverſe ratio of the weight of the gun. For that ratio, or 2 × 917 to 4 × 478, is as 56 to 58.
If we compare no 5 with the mean of July 21, which are both with 4 oz of powder, they will ſtand thus:
| Weight of gun | 478 | 915 |
| Recoil | 122 | 57 |
which ſhews that, in this inſtance, the ſame charge gives more than double the recoil to half the weight of the gun.
Laſtly, if we compare the means of each pair of velocities with the ſeveral weights of gun, we ſhall have as follows:
which differences are neither regular, nor greater than happen from different trials with the weight and all other circumſtances the ſame.
| for the 6 oz charge the | |
| Mean recoil with ball | 196 |
| Ditto without | 85 |
| Difference, or c = | 111 |
| Hence velocity by recoil | 1339 |
| Ditto by the pendulum | 1295 |
| Difference | 44 |
| Or the part | 1/30 |
| No | Powder | Weight of | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| ball | gun | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | lb | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 485 | 127 | |||||||||
| 2 | 6 | 485 | 176 | |||||||||
| 3 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 485 | 460 | 195 | 86.8 | 9 | 640.4 | 76.94 | 40.22 | 1606 |
| 4 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 485 | 459 | 197 | 87.2 | 8 | 641.7 | 76.96 | 40.22 | 1619 |
| 5 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 655 | 312 | 196 | 88.1 | 7 | 642.9 | 76.99 | 40.22 | 1598 |
| 6 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 655 | 319 | 196 | 88.3 | 7 | 644.2 | 77.01 | 40.22 | 1598 |
| 7 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 917 | 218 | 200 | 87.3 | 9 | 645.5 | 77.03 | 40.21 | 1653 |
| 8 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 917 | 216 | 196 | 88.3 | 9 | 646.7 | 77.06 | 40.21 | 1605 |
| 9 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 1170 | 174 | 202 | 89.4 | 7 | 648.0 | 77.08 | 40.21 | 1637 |
| 10 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 1170 | 168 | 198 | 89.1 | 8 | 649.3 | 77.11 | 40.21 | 1614 |
| mean of all | 1616 | |||||||||||
The GUN was no 3.—Began firſt with its own weight only; then at no 5 put on one pair of the uſual weights; at no 7 the other pair; and laſtly at no 9 fixed on ſome extra weights. But the reſult ſhews that the velocity of the ball is the ſame with all of them.
The PENDULUM as left hanging ſince yeſterday.
The value of i, or medium among the points ſtruck theſe laſt two days, is 88.2.
| No | Powder | Weight of | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | ||||||
| ball | wad | gun | pend | p | g | n | |||||||
| oz | oz | dr | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 58 | |||||||||||
| 2 | 6 | 2 | 10 | 119 | 31 | 93.0 | |||||||
| 3 | 6 | 2 | 9 | 120 | 20 | 78.0 | |||||||
| 4 | 6 | 93 | |||||||||||
| 5 | 6 | 93 | |||||||||||
| 6 | 6 | 2 | 10 | 225 | 206 | 89.7 | 4 | 651.6 | 77.14 | 40.21 | |||
| 7 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 2 | 8 | 228 | 212 | 89.4 | 652.9 | 77.16 | 40.21 | ||
| 8 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 2 | 9 | 230 | 206 | 87.6 | 5 | 654.1 | 77.19 | 40.21 | |
| 9 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 2 | 9 | 232 | 217 | 89.8 | 12 | 655.4 | 77.21 | 40.21 | |
| 10 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 2 | 8 | 231 | 206 | 88.8 | 10 | 656.7 | 77.23 | 40.20 | |
| 11 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 219 | 199 | 89.2 | 6 | 657.9 | 77.26 | 40.20 | |||
| 12 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 4 | 14 | 236 | 205 | 89.7 | 8 | 659.2 | 77.28 | 40.20 | |
| 13 | 6 | 16 | 14 | 4 | 12 | 235 | 220 | 89.5 | 5 | 660.5 | 77.30 | 04.20 | |
The GUN, no 3, with the uſual leads, weighed 917 lb.
The mean height of the charge of 6 ounces was 4.5 inches.
The PENDULUM, as left hanging ſince the laſt day.
The value of i, or the mean among the points ſtruck theſe laſt three days, 88.5.
The object of this day's buſineſs, was to try the effect of different de⯑grees of ramming the charge of powder, with the effect of wads placed [193]in different poſitions. Sometimes the powder was only ſet up without being compreſſed, and ſometimes it was rammed with a different number of ſtrokes, and puſhed with various degrees of force: but no ſenſible difference was produced in the velocity. The wads, which were of 2 inches length, firmly made of junk or rope-yarn, and made large to be with difficulty puſhed into the gun, were diverſly placed and varied in number, being ſometimes introduced between the powder and ball, and ſometimes over both. But no effect was perceived from them on the velocity of the ball; this being indifferently the ſame, either with one wad, or two, or none at all. The reaſon of which is probably becauſe the balls had very little windage. At the laſt two numbers two wads were uſed; in moſt of the others only one; weighing on an average about 2 oz 9 dr.
When balls were uſed with the wads, it was common for them both to enter the pendulum by the ſame hole. But it is remarkable that, when the wads were diſcharged without balls, they commonly ſtruck wide of the line of the gun by 6 or 8 inches, and indifferently either too high or too low, or to the right or left; and ſometimes they flew in pieces before they ſtruck the block.
The velocities of the ball in theſe experiments are not computed, as the effects of the blow from the ball and the wad are compounded to⯑gether, and that in an unknown degree, as the wad ſometimes ſlies in pieces, and ſometimes not, or ſtrikes the pendulum with divers degrees of force at different times; and alſo ſometimes the wads enter the pen⯑dulum, and ſometimes they rebound from it.
| No | Powder | Weight of | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | ||||||
| ball | wad | gun | pend | p | g | n | |||||||
| oz | oz | dr | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | |||||
| 1 | 4 | 56 | |||||||||||
| 2 | 4 | 56 | |||||||||||
| 3 | 6 | 14 | 2½ | 203 | 170 | 89.4 | 7 | 674.8 | 76.62 | 40.26 | |||
| 4 | 6 | 14 | 3 | 195 | 159 | 89.8 | 8 | 676.1 | 76.64 | 40.26 | |||
| 5 | 6 | 14 | 2½ | 4 | 12 | 214 | 161 | 89.5 | 5 | 677.3 | 76.67 | 40.26 | |
| 6 | 6 | 14 | 3½ | 4 | 10 | 215 | 163 | 89.3 | 6 | 678.6 | 76.69 | 40.26 | |
| 7 | 6 | 14 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 208 | 171 | 89.3 | 6 | 679.9 | 76.72 | 40.26 | |
| 8 | 6 | 14 | 2½ | 2 | 4 | 208 | 171 | 89.1 | 6 | 681.1 | 76.75 | 40.25 | |
| 9 | 6 | 13 | 15½ | 2 | 10 | 208 | 176 | 89.5 | 5 | 689.4 | 76.77 | 40.25 | |
| 10 | 6 | 14 | 3½ | 4 | 10 | 230 | 187 | 90.3 | 8 | 683.7 | 76.80 | 40.25 | |
| 11 | 6 | 14 | 3½ | 4 | 12 | 232 | 218 | 90.8 | 7 | 683.0 | 76.82 | 40.25 | |
The mean diameter of the ball was 1.875; ſo that the windage was 15.
The mean height of the charge of powder was 4.4.
The GUN no 3; its weight 917 lb.
The object this day was the effect of windage with low balls, and the effect of wads, both high and low ones. The wads ſtruck variouſly, either above or below or with the ball. The two wads in the laſt round were made of well-twiſted twine, and firmly bound: they ſtruck the pen⯑dulum very hard blows. The other wads were of junk, and did not ſtrike ſo hard.
[195]Here, the balls being ſmaller, and conſequently the windage more, the vibrations are much ſmaller, although wads were uſed. So that it ſeems the wads do not prevent the eſcape of the inflamed powder by the windage, nor make any ſenſible alteration in the velocity of the ball.
The velocities are not computed, for the ſame reaſon as ſpecified in the laſt day's experiments.
73. The PENDULUM block had not been altered ſince the laſt day's experiments. But the iron ſtays of the ſtem had been changed for others that are ſtronger, and which weigh 10 lb more than the old ones did. And this additional 10 lb of iron muſt be added to the weight of the pendulum; and new theorems muſt be made out for determining the change in the center of gravity and the number of vibrations per minute. Now this rod, of uniform thickneſs, reached from the lower ſide of the axis to within 24 inches of the top of the block; conſe⯑quently its length was 51.4 inches, and its middle point, or center of gravity, was at 26.6 inches below the middle of the axis of vibration. And this number 26.6 will be the value of i in the theorem [...] for the place of the new center of gravity, where the value of b is 10; which theorem gives G = 77.3 − 0.76 = 76.54 for the center of gravity.
And the ſame values of i and b, ſubſtituted in the theorem [...], give N = 40.2 + .07 = 40.27 for the number of oſcillations.
Hence then, in this new ſtate of the pendulum, the value of g is 76.54, and the value of n 40.27, correſponding to the value 670 of p, or weight of the pendulum. That is [196]
| p | g | n |
| 670 | 76.54 | 40.27 |
are the new radical correſponding values of p, g, n. And theſe va⯑lues, being ſubſtituted in the two general theorems, namely, [...], and [...], they become [...], and [...], or [...] nearly. Which are the theo⯑rems to be uſed now and hereafter for the values of g and n. And where the diſtance of the center of oſcillation, anſwering to the number 40.47, is 86.
The value of i this day, or the mean diſtance of the points ſtruck, is 89.7.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | D 65 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 10 | 1.97 | 16 | 15 | 272 | 183 | 89.4 | 7 | 686.7 | 76.87 | 40.25 | 1561 |
| 3 | 8 | 240 | 176 | 89.7 | 6 | 688.0 | 76.89 | 40.24 | 1499 | |||
| 4 | 12 | 297 | 183 | 89.5 | 6 | 689.3 | 76.91 | 40.24 | 1566 | |||
| 5 | 10 | 258 | 168 | 88.8 | 7 | 690.6 | 76.93 | 40.24 | 1452 | |||
| 6 | 10 | 263 | 168 | 88.1 | 6 | 691.8 | 76.95 | 40.24 | 1466 | |||
| 7 | 12 | 293 | 177 | 88.2 | 8 | 693.1 | 76.97 | 40.24 | 1546 | |||
| 8 | 14 | 327 | 182 | 89.8 | 10 | 694.3 | 76.99 | 40.24 | 1565 | |||
| 9 | 14 | 310 | 175 | 89.8 | 9 | 695.5 | 77.01 | 40.24 | 1508 | |||
| 10 | 8 | 240 | 172 | 88.6 | 8 | 696.9 | 77.03 | 40.23 | 1505 | |||
| 11 | 8 | 232 | 164 | 89.7 | 8 | 698.1 | 77.05 | 40.23 | 1421 | |||
| 12 | 6 | 1.96 | 16 | 14 | 151 | 89.5 | 6 | 699.4 | 77.07 | 40.23 | 1319 | |
| 13 | 6 | 200 | 157 | 88.6 | 6 | 700.7 | 77.09 | 40.23 | 1388 | |||
| 14 | 12 | 283 | 157 | 85.1 | 9 | 702.0 | 77.11 | 40.23 | 1448 | |||
| 15 | 14 | 318 | 169 | 88.0 | 7 | 703.2 | 77.13 | 40.23 | 1510 | |||
| 16 | 6 | 202 | 149 | 84.0 | 8 | 704.5 | 77.15 | 40.23 | 1398 | |||
The GUN was no 1, weighing, with the uſual leads, 917 lb.
The PENDULUM as left hanging ſince yeſterday.
The mean value of i, for the laſt two days, is 88.91.
After the experiments were ended this day, the pendulum was weighed, and found to be 706 lb. Now the original weight, when weighed at firſt on the 26th of July, ſeemingly with as much care as now, was 627 lb; to this add 61½ lb weight of balls and plugs lodged in it, and 10 lb of iron added on the 8th of Auguſt, and they make together 698½ lb; from this take 1.6 lb, for the diminution of the leaden facing [198]of the pendulum, by the balls ſtriking and piercing it, and there will remain only 697 lb, which the pendulum ought to weigh, and which is 9 lb leſs than it is actually found to weigh. I cannot imagine any cauſe to which this difference of weight may be attributed, as it is contrary to the effect heretofore experienced, the pendulum having always been found to loſe in weight by hanging up; unleſs it ariſe from the moiſture imbibed by the block in the 17 days it was up, and during all or the moſt part of which time it was very rainy weather, and the pendulum hung uncovered. And the probability of this will be heightened by conſidering that the block had lain by all the preceding winter, and till after midſummer this year, under cover, in the carpenter's ſhop, a cir⯑cumſtance which would make it very dry, and ſo render it apt to im⯑bibe moiſture from the continually foggy atmoſphere and rain which have taken place ever ſince it was expoſed. This increaſe of weight then, being 9 lb in the 17 days, or nearly half a pound per day, I have thought it ſafeſt to divide equally among all the days, by adding half a pound for each day it hung up, from the beginning of this year to the end of this day's experiments.
The object of this courſe was again to ſearch out the maximum of the gun's charge; but it is not a good ſet of experiments, the velocities being not regular, perhaps owing to the bad ſtate of the pendulum, which was very much ſhattered. However it ſufficiently appears that there is but little difference among the velocities due to 8, 10, 12, and 14 ounces of powder.
| Weight of Powder | 6 oz | 8 oz | 10 oz | 12 oz | 14 oz |
| Mean height of charge | 4.4 | 5.7 | 7.0 | 8.1 | 9.5 |
| Mean recoil of gun | 201 | 237 | 264 | 291 | 318 |
| Velocities by the pen⯑dulum | 1319 | 1499 | 1561 | 1566 | 1565 |
| Velocities by the pen⯑dulum | 1388 | 1505 | 1452 | 1546 | 1508 |
| Velocities by the pen⯑dulum | 1398 | 1421 | 1466 | 1448 | 1510 |
| Mean ditto | 1368 | 1475 | 1493 | 1520 | 1528 |
Since the laſt experiments, the ſteadying-rods of the gun-frame having been lengthened, and the pendulum block repaired with a new core, &c. we attended to weigh and meaſure the ſeveral parts; the circum⯑ſtances of which were as follows:
| Weight of the pendulum | 638 = p |
| Theref. to its center of gravity | 75.93 = g |
| And its vibrations per minute | 40.30 = n |
The new ſtay-rods of the gun-frame weigh 17 lb more than the old ones, ſo that now
| lb | |
| The weight of iron in the frame is | 205 |
| Weight of gun and iron together | 495 |
| Weight of gun, iron, and leads | 934 = G |
By this additional 17 lb weight of iron, the values of g and n, or the center of gravity and number of oſcillations, will be altered; which will cauſe an alteration in our theorem v = 59/96 × Ggc/bin, by which the ve⯑locity of the ball is determined from the recoil of the gun, in Art. 36. The values of thoſe two letters were, at Art. 42 and 43, found to be g = 80.47, and n = 40.0 for the gun no 2; but the former will now become ſomething leſs, and the latter ſomething greater.
Now the old and new iron ſtay-rods were nearly of equal thickneſs. But the old rods extended only 29 inches, and the new ones 58 inches below the axis; the difference is 29; and the half difference, or 14½ added to the old length 29, gives 43½ inches below the axis, where the [200]middle or center of gravity of the additional length is ſituated, the weight of which part is 17 lb. But the center of gravity was found to be 80.47 below the axis, when the whole weight was 917 lb. Here, the difference of the two diſtances, or the diſtance between the two weights 17 and 917, being 37 inches, and the ſum of the weights 934, we ſhall have 934 ∶ 17 ∷ 37 ∶ 0.67 the change of the diſtance of the center of gravity; which being ſubtracted from 80.47, leaves 79.8 for the diſtance of the new compound center of gravity.
Alſo the correction of the value of n will be determined by the uſual formula [...], in which b = 17, i = 43.5, n = 40.0, p = 917, and g = 80.47; which values, being uſed in that formula, give 0.1 for the correction of n; to which add 40.0, and we ſhall have 40.1 for the new value of n, or number of oſcillations per minute, for the gun no 2; and conſe⯑quently 40.2 for no 1, and 40.0 for no 3, and 39.9 for no 1. Hence then the new values for the gun no 2 are thus:
| G | g | n | i | r |
| 934 | 79.8 | 40.1 | 89.15 | 1000 |
Then, uſing theſe values of G, g, n, i, r, in the formula v = 59000/96 × Ggc/birn above-mentioned, it becomes v = 205/16 × c / b for the velocity by the recoil of the gun; where b is the weight of the ball, and c the difference between the chords of recoil with and without a ball.
And when b = 1.047 lb = 16 oz 12 dr, the ſame theorem is v = 12⅓c for the gun no 2. And every ½ dram in the value of b will alter this theorem by the 1/525th part nearly.
Alſo for the gun no 1 the above velocity muſt be decreaſed by the 400th part, and for no 3 increaſed by the 400th part, and for no 4 in⯑creaſed by the 200th part.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 115 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 4 | 116 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 6 | 194 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 6 | 190 | ||||||||||
| 5 | 6 | 193 | ||||||||||
| 6 | 4 | 1.96 | 16 | 12 | 143 | 88.0 | 8 | 638.0 | 75.93 | 40.30 | 1148 | |
| 7 | 4 | 322 | 140 | 88.3 | 7 | 639.2 | 75.95 | 40.30 | 1123 | |||
| 8 | 4 | 324 | 144 | 89.3 | 7 | 640.3 | 75.97 | 40.30 | 1144 | |||
| 9 | 4 | 318 | 138 | 88.4 | 6 | 641.5 | 75.99 | 40.30 | 1110 | |||
| 10 | 6 | 433 | 173 | 88.5 | 7 | 642.7 | 76.02 | 40.30 | 1393 | |||
| 11 | 6 | 432 | 173 | 89.9 | 6 | 643.8 | 76.04 | 40.30 | 1374 | |||
| 12 | 6 | 430 | 172 | 90.1 | 7 | 645.0 | 76.06 | 40.30 | 1366 | |||
| 13 | 6 | 427 | 168 | 89.6 | 6 | 646.1 | 76.09 | 40.30 | 1345 | |||
| 14 | 8 | 519 | 188 | 90.0 | 7 | 647.3 | 76.11 | 40.30 | 1501 | |||
| 15 | 8 | 498 | 172 | 88.9 | 8 | 648.5 | 76.13 | 40.30 | 1394 D | |||
| 16 | 8 | 529 | 190 | 89.6 | 6 | 649.6 | 76.15 | 40.30 | 1530 | |||
| 17 | 2 | 92 | 89.4 | 3 | 650.8 | 76.17 | 40.29 | 744 | ||||
| 18 | 2 | 197 | 98 | 90.3 | 3 | 652.0 | 76.19 | 40.29 | 786 | |||
| 19 | 2 | 187 | 91 | 89.8 | 3 | 653.1 | 76.21 | 40.29 | 736 | |||
The GUN, no 1, without the leaden weights, weighed 495 lb.
The PENDULUM as ſpecified the laſt day.
The plugs weigh 6 ounces to 7 inches long, not being of ſo dry wood as before. And this rate of the weight of the plugs to be con⯑tinued till an alteration is announced.
The mean value of i, or point ſtruck, is 89.29.
Here 439 lb weight of lead being taken off, at the diſtance 90.3 below the axis; and the center of gravity yeſterday being at 79.8 diſtance, [202]when the whole weight was 934 lb; therefore 495 ∶ 439 ∷ 10.5 ∶ 9.3 the change of the center of gravity; and conſequently 79.8 − 9.3 = 70.5 = g is the diſtance of the new center of gravity for this day.
Alſo the new number of oſcillations per minute for this day will be found by this formula [...]; where the values of the letters are thus, namely: G = 934 g = 79.8 b = 439 i = 90.3 n = 40.2 Now in this day's experiments, the
| Charge or weight of Powder | 2 oz | 4 oz | 6 oz | 8 oz |
| Mean height of ditto | 1.8 | 3.1 | 4.3 | 5.8 |
| Mean recoil with ball | 192 | 321 | 431 | 515 |
| Ditto without | 115 | 192 | ||
| Difference, or c = | 206 | 239 | ||
| Hence velocity by recoil | 1170 | 1358 | ||
| Mean ditto by the pendulum | 755 | 1131 | 1370 | 1475 |
| Difference, | + 39 | − 12 | ||
| Or nearly the part | 1/30 | 1/114 |
Theſe velocities from the recoil are found by the theorem 59/96 × Ggc/bin, where the values of the letters are thus: G = 495 g = 70.5 b = 1.047 i = 89.15 n = 40.5
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 58 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 8 | 1.97 | 16 | 14 | 249 D | 225 | 89.6 | 10 | 654.3 | 76.23 | 40.29 | 1814 |
| 3 | 8 | 1.92 | 16 | 4 | 248 | 206 | 89.6 | 6 | 655.4 | 76.25 | 40.29 | 1730 |
| 4 | 8 | 1.87 | 15 | 2 | 241 | 185 | 88.7 | 8 | 656.6 | 76.27 | 40.29 | 1693 |
| 5 | 8 | 1.97 | 16 | 14 | 262 | 224 | 89.7 | 3 | 657.8 | 76.29 | 40.29 | 1815 |
| 6 | 8 | 1.92 | 16 | 2 | 249 | 201 | 88.9 | 7 | 658.9 | 76.32 | 40.28 | 1725 |
| 7 | 8 | 1.87 | 15 | 2 | 236 | 177 | 88.6 | 7 | 660.1 | 76.34 | 40.28 | 1631 |
| 8 | 4 | 1.97 | 16 | 14 | 165 | 165 | 90.0 | 7 | 661.3 | 76.36 | 40.28 | 1341 |
| 9 | 4 | 1.92 | 16 | 2 | 155 | 146 | 89.3 | 6 | 662.4 | 76.39 | 40.28 | 1255 |
| 10 | 4 | 1.87 | 15 | 2 | 149 | 134 | 89.7 | 7 | 663.6 | 76.41 | 40.28 | 1228 |
| 11 | 4 | 1.97 | 16 | 14 | 165 | 165 | 89.9 | 6 | 664.8 | 76.43 | 40.28 | 1351 |
| 12 | 4 | 1.92 | 16 | 1 | 153 | 142 | 89.3 | 5 | 665.9 | 76.45 | 40.27 | 1233 |
| 13 | 4 | 1.87 | 15 | 2 | 146 | 132 | 89.3 | 5 | 667.1 | 76.48 | 40.27 | 1222 |
The GUN was no 3, and weighed 934 lb.
At no 2 the recoil 249 of the gun is too ſmall; owing to the ſtylette, which ought to trace the arc, not marking all the way.
The PENDULUM as left yeſterday.
The mean value of i, or point ſtruck theſe two days, is 89.34.
The object this day was the effect of different ſizes and weights of balls, and different degrees of windage.
The mean weight of balls and velocity, for the two weights of pow⯑der 4 and 8 ounces, are as follow: [204]
| Ball's | ||||||
| Powder's | wt | diam | Recoil | Veloc. | ||
| wt | ht | oz | dr | inches | gun | ball |
| 4 | 3.4 | 15 | 2 | 1.87 | 148 | 1225 |
| 16 | 2 | 1.92 | 154 | 1244 | ||
| 16 | 14 | 1.97 | 165 | 1346 | ||
| 8 | 5.9 | 15 | 2 | 1.87 | 239 | 1662 |
| 16 | 3 | 1.92 | 249 | 1728 | ||
| 16 | 14 | 1.97 | 262 | 1815 | ||
Here the decreaſe of the velocity is uniformly obſervable with the decreaſe of weight in the ball, and that in a very conſiderable degree, inſtead of increaſing, which it ought to do, if the windage were the ſame, or the balls had the ſame diameter, and that in the reciprocal ſub-duplicate ratio of the weight of the ball. Now that ratio is the ratio of √15⅛ to √16⅞, or of 11 to 11 7/11. Therefore as 11 ∶ 11 7/11 ∷ 1346 ∶ 1424 the velocity the leaſt ball would have had, if its diameter had been equal to the heavieſt. But its velocity was actually no more than 1225; and therefore the difference 199, or 1/7 of the whole, or 1/6 of the experimented velocity, is the velocity loſt by the difference of windage; although this difference was only 1/10 of an inch, or 1/20 of the caliber, which is no more than the uſual windage allowed in ſervice. But the force, or inflamed powder, loſt by the ſame cauſe, will be 2/7, or a double part of the velocity, becauſe the velocity is as the ſquare of the force or quantity of powder. Hence then, in charges with 4 ounces of powder, and a windage of 1/20 of the caliber, 2/7 of the charge is loſt, or nearly a mean between ⅓ and ¼.
And if the computation be made in like manner for the above charges of 8 ounces of powder, it will be found that the part of the charge loſt by the ſame windage, will be, in the caſe of 8 ounces, 4/13 of the whole; which is ſtill more than the ¼ part, though ſomewhat leſs than in the caſe of 4 ounces. The reaſon of which is, that the ball is ſooner out of the gun with the 8 oz charge, and ſo the fluid has leſs time to eſcape in.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| inches | oz | dr | ||||||||||
| 1 | 4 | 1.96 | 16 | 9 | 347 | 160 | 88.0 | 4 | 668.3 | 76.50 | 40.27 | 1373 |
| 2 | 4 | 348 | 161 | 87.8 | 7 | 669.4 | 76.52 | 40.27 | 1387 | |||
| 3 | 4 | 353 | 165 | 88.5 | 6 | 670.6 | 76.54 | 40.27 | 1413 | |||
| 4 | 4 | 350 | 161 | 87.5 | 6 | 671.8 | 76.57 | 40.27 | 1398 | |||
| 5 | 4 | 346 | 157 | 87.3 | 5 | 672.9 | 76.59 | 40.27 | 1369 | |||
| 6 | 4 | 352 | 159 | 87.2 | 5 | 674.0 | 76.61 | 40.27 | 1390 | |||
The GUN was no 3; its weight 500 lb.
The PENDULUM as left yeſterday.
The mean value of i, or point ſtruck theſe 3 days, 89.03.
| Powder | Recoil | Mean veloc. of the ball | |
| wt | ht | gun | |
| 4 | 3.1 | 34.9 | 1388 |
The cartridge of no 1, 2, and 4 was fired at the fore part; no 3 and 5 behind; and no 6 in the middle: but there does not appear to be any difference among them.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 1.97 | 16 | 12 | 166 | |||||||
| 2 | 4 | 457 | 132 | 89.7 | 5 | 683.0 | 76.66 | 40.28 | 1125 | |||
| 3 | 4 | 451 | 132 | 91.3 | 4 | 684.1 | 76.68 | 40.28 | 1107 | |||
| 4 | 4 | 458 | 136 | 91.5 | 4 | 685.2 | 76.70 | 40.28 | 1140 | |||
| 5 | 6 | 157 | 88.9 | 4 | 686.3 | 76.72 | 40.28 | 1357 | ||||
| 6 | 6 | 613 | 162 | 91.0 | 4 | 687.5 | 76.74 | 40.28 | 1371 | |||
| 7 | 6 | 591 | 153 | 90.1 | 4 | 688.6 | 76.76 | 40.28 | 1310 D | |||
| 8 | 6 | 617 | 162 | 90.2 | 5 | 689.7 | 76.78 | 40.28 | 1388 | |||
| 9 | 8 | 16 | 10 | 163 | 89.6 | 5 | 690.8 | 76.80 | 40.27 | 1420 | ||
| 10 | 8 | 1.96 | 16 | 12 | 168 | 88.6 | 4 | 691.9 | 76.82 | 40.27 | 1471 | |
The GUN was no 1, without any of the leaden weights. The gun itſelf now weighs only 179 lb, as it has been lightened 111 lb, by turn⯑ing it down, to try if the velocity of the ball would be any leſs by making the gun lighter: but no difference appears, as the iron work is 205, the gun and iron together this day weigh 384 lb.
80. The PENDULUM as left yeſterday, except that it had received a ſtrengthening ſtrap of iron, weighing 7 lb 13½ oz, which, reduced to its center of gravity, is placed at 79 inches below the axis. With this ſtrap it weighed this morning, before the experiments commenced, 683 lb; which is 6.2 lb leſs than it ought to be by adding all the balls and plugs to the firſt weight; of which 6.2 lb difference, about 1.6 lb is for waſte of the leaden facing, and the reſt 4.6 lb is probably by evapo⯑ration: and as the time the pendulum has hung up is 11 days, the rate [207]of evaporation is about 3/7 of a pound per day. The 6.2 lb loſs is di⯑vided equally among all the 32 experiments that have been made.
On account of the iron ſtrap of 7.8 lb added at 79 inches, as above, the formula laſt given, for the variation in the center of gravity and number of oſcillations, will need correction, namely the formula
Now theſe formulae, by making i = 79, and b = 7.8, become
And hence the correſponding radical values are nearly
| p | g | n |
| 678 | 76.57 | 40.29 |
Which values, being ſubſtituted in the two general theorems, viz.
Note, the mean value of i, for the point ſtruck the four laſt days, is 88.82; which, uſed in theſe laſt formula, give the corrected values of g and n, as inſerted in their proper columns in the table of this day's experiments.—No 7 is doubtful, and therefore omitted.
[208]The means of this day are as below:
| Powder | Recoil | Veloc. of | |
| wt | ht | gun | the ball |
| 4 | 3.0 | 455 | 1124 |
| 6 | 4.3 | 615 | 1372 |
| 8 | 5.5 | 1445 | |
This day Major Blomfield alone tried ſome cartridges, of 8 oz each, by firing them behind, before, and in the middle; but he found no ſen⯑ſible difference in the velocities.
He alſo diſcharged ſeveral low balls, weighing only 13 oz 3 dr, and having about .15 of an inch windage; and the ſame balls, when covered with leather, ſo as to fit cloſely in the bore: but the velocities were the ſame; probably owing to the fired powder quickly blowing off the leather.
The weight of the pendulum was increaſed 10 or 11 lb, namely, by 8 balls and 58 inches of plugs.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ball | |||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | D149 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 4 | 163 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 4 | 164 | ||||||||||
| 4 | 8 | 1.96 | 16 | 10 | 740 | 158 | 87.6 | 6 | 704.0 | 77.03 | 40.26 | 1440 |
| 5 | 8 | 14 | 742 | 166 | 88.2 | 6 | 705.0 | 77.05 | 40.26 | 1482 | ||
| 6 | 8 | 10 | 742 | 163 | 88.1 | 7 | 706.1 | 77.07 | 40.26 | 1482 | ||
| 7 | 8 | 14 | 729 | 158 | 87.6 | 6 | 707.1 | 77.09 | 40.25 | 1425 | ||
| 8 | 8 | 10 | 749 | 168 | 89.0 | 6 | 708.2 | 77.11 | 40.25 | 1517 | ||
| 9 | 8 | 14 | 751 | 166 | 88.8 | 6 | 709.2 | 77.13 | 40.25 | 1482 | ||
| 10 | 6 | 10 | 615 | 151 | 89.1 | 6 | 710.3 | 77.14 | 40.25 | 1367 | ||
| 11 | 6 | 14 | 604 | 150 | 90.2 | 7 | 711.3 | 77.16 | 40.25 | 1323 | ||
| 12 | 6 | 10 | 586 | 147 | 92.3 | 9 | 712.4 | 77.18 | 40.24 | 1289 | ||
| 13 | 6 | 14 | 610 | 152 | 91.9 | 8 | 713.4 | 77.20 | 40.24 | 1321 | ||
| 14 | 4 | 10 | 457 | 128 | 92.5 | 7 | 714.5 | 77.22 | 40.24 | 1124 | ||
| 15 | 4 | 14 | 453 | 120 | 92.4 | 8 | 715.5 | 77.24 | 40.24 | 1041 | ||
| 16 | 4 | 10 | 447 | 120 | 92.3 | 6 | 716.5 | 77.26 | 40.24 | 1059 | ||
| 17 | 2 | 14 | 270 | 85 | 91.5 | 5 | 717.6 | 77.27 | 40.23 | 747 | ||
| 18 | 2 | 10 | 271 | 85 | 91.2 | 4 | 718.6 | 77.29 | 40.23 | 762 | ||
| 19 | 2 | 14 | 279 | 87 | 91.4 | 4 | 719.7 | 77.31 | 40.23 | 768 | ||
| 20 | 4 | 14 | 459 | 128 | 92.3 | 5 | 720.7 | 77.33 | 40.23 | 1120 | ||
The GUN no 1, without the leads, weighed 384 lb.
The PENDULUM the ſame as left hanging ſince the laſt day.
This day was a continuation of the experiments with the light gun, again to try if the velocity was altered. But without effect. The means as below:
| Powder's Weight | 2 oz | 4 oz | 6 oz | 8 oz |
| — height | 1.73 | 2.94 | 4.12 | 5.42 |
| Recoil of gun | 273 | 454 | 604 | 742 |
| Velocity of ball | 759 | 1086 | 1325 | 1472 |
[210]The mean weight of the balls is 16 oz 12 dr.
The mean value of i, for the point ſtruck, was 89.3.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 48 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 8 | 1.96 | 16 | 10 | 206 | 152 | 89.0 | 5 | 721.9 | 77.35 | 40.23 | 1404 |
| 3 | 8 | 14 | 213 | 158 | 87.6 | 5 | 723.0 | 77.37 | 40.23 | 1463 | ||
| 4 | 8 | 14 | 208 | 163 | 91.8 | 7 | 724.1 | 77.39 | 40.23 | 1443 | ||
| 5 | 8 | 14 | ½ | 158 | 91.0 | 6 | 725.2 | 77.41 | 40.22 | 1414 | ||
| 6 | 8 | 14 | ¼ | 152 | 90.7 | 6 | 726.4 | 77.43 | 40.22 | 1367 | ||
| 7 | 8 | 13 | ¼ | 153 | 91.3 | 6 | 727.5 | 77.45 | 40.22 | 1374 | ||
| mean | 1411 | |||||||||||
The GUN was no 1, with 687 lb of lead fixed to it, namely, 433½ lb about the trunnions, and 253½ lb laſhed upon the upper ſide of the gun, cloſe to, and before and behind the ſtem: theſe, with 384 lb for the gun and iron together, make in all 1071 lb.
The object was again to try if the velocity of the ball would be in⯑creaſed by diminiſhing the recoil of the gun. And for the ſeverer trial, a great quantity of heavy timber was laid behind and againſt the caſcable of the gun in the laſt three rounds, ſo as to ſtop the recoil intirely, which it did, excepting for about the ½ or ¼ of an inch, which the gun puſhed the timber back, as expreſſed in the column of recoil. But the reſult is ſtill the ſame.
The PENDULUM the ſame as left hanging ſince yeſterday.
The mean value of i, or point ſtruck the laſt 6 days, is 89.4.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 62 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 8 | 144 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 144 | |||||||||||
| 4 | 148 | |||||||||||
| 5 | 147 | |||||||||||
| 6 | 155 | |||||||||||
| 7 | 157 | |||||||||||
| 8 | 1.95 | 16 | 9 | 272 | 150 | 88.4 | 9 | 728.7 | 77.46 | 40.22 | 1416 | |
| 9 | 268 | 146 | 88.8 | 7 | 729.8 | 77.48 | 40.22 | 1375 | ||||
| 10 | 279 | 150 | 88.1 | 5 | 730.9 | 77.49 | 40.22 | 1426 | ||||
| 11 | 279 | 147 | 88.7 | 7 | 732.0 | 77.51 | 40.21 | 1390 | ||||
| 12 | 273 | 150 | 87.4 | 6 | 733.2 | 77.52 | 40.21 | 1442 | ||||
| 13 | 282 | 174 D | 87.4 | 8 | 693.4 | 76.83 | 40.27 | 1566 D | ||||
| mean | 1436 | |||||||||||
The GUN no 1, with leads, weighed 817 lb.
The PENDULUM as left yeſterday.
The mean value of i, or point ſtruck, theſe laſt 7 days, 89.3.
The object this day was the effect of cork wads, and of different de⯑grees of ramming. The cork wads were near an inch long, and were made to fit very tight, being rather more than 2 inches diameter; and weighed 5 drams each.
[212]Nos 1, 2, 3, 8, 9 were without wads, 4, 5, 10, 11 with a wad gently preſſed home, 6, 7, 12, 13 with a wad, and hard rammed by 2 men.
At no 12 one of the iron bands of the pendulum broke, and fell acroſs the meaſuring arch. The band weighed 41 lb, and no 13 was fired after the band was removed, and conſequently 41 lb muſt be deducted.
The velocities are
| 1416 | 1396 the mean without wads |
| 1375 | 1396 the mean without wads |
| 1426 | 1408 with wads not preſſed. |
| 1390 | 1408 with wads not preſſed. |
| 1442 | 1442 with wads very hard rammed. |
| D | 1442 with wads very hard rammed. |
| 148 | Mean recoil without ball |
| 275 | Ditto with ball. |
No 13 is very doubtful, the vibration of the pendulum being evi⯑dently too large; perhaps 174 had been ſet down inſtead of 164.
In the above there ſeems to be ſome ſmall advantage in favour of the wads. But I ſuſpect the difference is only accidental; and the num⯑ber of experiments is too ſmall to afford any tolerably good mediums.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 63 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 8 | 143 | ||||||||||
| 3 | 1.95 | 16 | 9 | 141 | 87.4 | 10 | 733.5 | 77.52 | 40.21 | 1357 | ||
| 4 | 9 | 285 | 160 | 85.9 | 9 | 734.9 | 77.54 | 1569 D | ||||
| 5 | 8 | 275 | 150 | 86.8 | 7 | 736.4 | 77.56 | 1465 | ||||
| 6 | 8 | 267 | 149 | 86.1 | 8 | 737.8 | 77.58 | 1470 | ||||
| 7 | 8 | 268 | 145 | 86.2 | 8 | 739.3 | 77.60 | 1433 | ||||
| 8 | 8 | 264 | 146 | 87.0 | 9 | 740.7 | 77.62 | 1432 | ||||
| 9 | 8 | 274 | 147 | 85.4 | 6 | 742.2 | 77.64 | 1472 | ||||
| 10 | 8 | 272 | 148 | 86.5 | 7 | 743.6 | 77.66 | 1467 | ||||
| 11 | 5 | 267 | 142 | 85.9 | 5 | 745.1 | 77.68 | 1436 | ||||
| 12 | 5 | 261 | 137 | 86.5 | 9 | 746.5 | 77.70 | 1379 | ||||
| 13 | 5 | 263 | 137 | 85.9 | 7 | 748.0 | 77.72 | 1392 | ||||
| 14 | 5 | 269 | 143 | 85.7 | 6 | 749.4 | 77.74 | 1459 | ||||
| mean | 1444 | |||||||||||
The GUN no 1, weighed 817 lb.
The PENDULUM had had its band repaired, which did not how⯑ever alter its weight. The whole weighed this morning 733½ lb. Now the weight of the balls and plugs in the laſt 5 days is 62 lb, which, being added to 683 lb, the weight of the pendulum on September 21, it makes 745 lb, which is 11½ lb more than it weighed this morning. For this defect I know of no cauſe but evaporation: for in this time there was no waſte of leaden facing, as the other end of the block was uſed, which was not covered with lead. The time in which this 11½ lb was loſt is 20 days, which is nearly at the rate of ½ a pound each day. This defect is therefore divided equally among all the days.
[214]The mean value of i, for the point ſtruck theſe 8 days, is 88.8.
The object this day was again the effect of cork wads, and different degrees of ramming.
| Ht. of Powder | Mean Veloc. | |
| Nos 2, 9 were without wads | 5.85 | 1472 |
| 3, 5, 7 with wads, not rammed | 5.87 | 1418 |
| 6, 8 a wad, and very hard rammed | 4.40 | 1451 |
| 10, 11, 12 a wad, and moderately rammed | 5.20 | 1427 |
| 13, 14 2 wads over powder and 1 over ball, and very hard rammed | 4.45 | 1426 |
| Mean of all | 5.15 | 1444 |
| Wt. of ball | Mean Veloc. | |
| Nos 3, 4 | 16 9 | 1463 |
| 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 | 16 8 | 1456 |
| 11, 12, 13, 14 | 16 5 | 1417 |
| Mean of all | 16 7 | 1444 |
In this courſe the wads have no perceptible effect.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibration of | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | |||||
| diam | wt | gun | pend | p | g | n | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | ||||
| 1 | 8 | 123 | ||||||||||
| 2 | 16 | 1.96 | 16 | 11 | 208 | 87.1 | 9 | 750.9 | 77.76 | 40.21 | 2047 | |
| 3 | 16 | 425 | 219 | 86.0 | 9 | 752.3 | 77.78 | 40.21 | 2187 | |||
| 4 | 16 | 409 | 200 | 85.6 | 10 | 753.8 | 77.79 | 40.20 | 2011 | |||
| 5 | 16 | 152 | 87.1 | 7 | 755.2 | 77.81 | 40.20 | 1505 D | ||||
| 6 | 16 | 389 | 197 | 85.4 | 11 | 756.7 | 77.83 | 40.20 | 1994 | |||
| 7 | 16 | 412 | 204 | 85.7 | 8 | 758.1 | 77.85 | 40.20 | 2062 | |||
| 8 | 16 | 408 | 203 | 85.5 | 8 | 759.5 | 77.86 | 40.20 | 2061 | |||
| mean | 2060 | |||||||||||
The GUN no 4, weighed 928 lb.
The PENDULUM as left yeſterday. But it was quite broken and uſeleſs at the end of theſe experiments.
The mean value of i, or point ſtruck theſe 9 days, 88.6.
The object this day was the effect of firing the charge in different parts, either before, or behind, or in the middle: for which the means are as below:
| Mean Veloc. | |
| Nos 2, 6 fired before | 2020 |
| 3, 7 in the middle | 2124 |
| 4, 8 behind | 2036 |
| Mean of all | 2060 |
| Mean recoil of gun | 409 |
| No 5 is omitted as doubtful. |
The end of Experiments in 1784.
87. SEVERAL of the experiments of the two former years being not ſo regular as might be wiſhed, we have again under⯑taken to repeat ſome of them, and to add ſtill more to the ſtock already obtained, that the mediums upon the whole may be tolerably exact, the great number of repetitions counteracting the unavoidable ſmall irregu⯑larities, and deviations from the truth, in experiments inſtituted upon ſo large a ſcale. For this purpoſe we begin with the gun no 2, and uſe charges of 8 ounces of powder; and have formed the reſolution of firing every ſhot into a freſh and ſound part of the block of wood, and changing the block very frequently, before it become too much bat⯑tered, that the penetration of the ball and the force of the blow may be obtained with the greater degree of accuracy.
It is alſo propoſed to procure ſome good ranges, to compare them with the initial velocities made under the ſame circumſtances; from the compariſon of which we may eſtimate the effects of the reſiſtance of the air, and ſo lay a foundation for a new theory of gunnery. It is rather difficult to obtain with accuracy ſuch long ranges as our initial velocities would produce, being from 1 mile to 2 miles, when the projection is made at an angle of 45 degrees; for in ſuch long ranges our ſmall balls cannot be ſeen, when they fall to the ground. We were obliged therefore to have recourſe to the water, in which the fall of the ball can be much better perceived; becauſe the plunge of the ball in the water, breaking the ſurface and throwing it up, makes the place viſible at a great diſtance. But then another difficulty occurs, how to obtain exactly the diſtance of the fall, or length of the range, as the mark [217]made in the ſurface of the water is viſible but for a moment. This difficulty however, our ſituation at Woolwich, cloſe by the river Thames, enabled us to overcome, as well as afforded us a good length of range. For at our ſituation in the Warren, the river makes a re⯑markable turn, and forms below us the part called the Gallions Reach, a map of which is here given in plate IV. In this map, A denotes the point where the guns were placed, being the Convicts' Wharf, which is ſo called becauſe it is there that the convicts, or felons condemned to work on the river Thames, land their gravel, and upon which they uſually labour. From this point we have a convenient range of about a mile and a half towards B, in the county of Eſſex, where there is a private or merchant's powder magazine. The buildings near C conſiſt of the academy and a noble range of ſtore-houſes; and from this point we ſhould have had a ſtill longer and more convenient range, had not our view from hence been interrupted by four large hulks, which lie, for the uſe of the convicts, in the river oppoſite the part between this point and the point A. Having found this convenient ſituation for our operations, we made an exact ſurvey and map of the two ſides of the river, both ways beyond the extent of the ranges; and fixed on con⯑venient ſtations at D and E on the ſouth ſide, and F and G on the north ſide of the river, to place two parties of obſervers, who might mark the place where each ball ſhould fall in the water, as well as note down the time employed by the ball in flying through the air, from the viſible diſcharge of the gun to the plunge of the ball in the water. The method of determining the place of the fall was this: Two parties of obſervers, conſiſting of three or four ſteady and intelligent young gentlemen in each party, having taken their ſtands at D and F, or E and G, according to the expected length of the range, carefully watched the diſcharge of every ball from the gun at A; then tracing it, as it were, through the air by the loud whizzing noiſe it made in its ſlight, their eye was prepared and directed gradually towards the place of the fall, which they ſeldom miſſed of obſerving. Then immediately [218]on perceiving the plunge, ſome of them noted the time of flight, by a good ſtop watch, while others obſerved ſome remarkable land object on the oppoſite coaſt, and directly in a line with the place in the water where the ball fell. This done, they directed the teleſcope or ſights of an inſtrument, ſuch as a theodolite or plain table, to that object, and noted the poſition of it. This being done by each party of obſervers, and the line of poſition from each ſtation drawn on the plan, afterwards at leiſure, the interſection of thoſe lines gave very exactly the place of the fall, and conſequently its diſtance from the gun. In this manner then were determined all the ranges and times of flight regiſtered in the following experiments; thoſe places being left blank where the ob⯑ſervation was either doubtful, or not made at all. The times of flight were alſo ſometimes obſerved at the gun itſelf, where the plunge of the ball could often be perceived.
In this map of the river in plate IV, the dotted line on each ſide of the river denotes low-water mark; the firſt black line next without it denotes high-water mark; and the other, or outermoſt line, is the land bank which has been raiſed in former ages, from Greenwich for many miles below, and with immenſe labour, to prevent the waters of the river from overflowing the adjacent fields, which it would do every tide, as they lie low and are otherwiſe very marſhy.
EMPLOYED this day in making part of the ſurvey by the ſide of the river, for forming the map, and fixing the ſtations proper for the parties of obſervers to occupy, in watching the fall of the balls in the river; and for other purpoſes.
[219]We weighed and meaſured the pendulum, which had been prepared in a very complete manner, and with ſtronger bands than before. It weighed juſt 795 lb. And, by a mean of ſeveral times balancing and vibrating, we found 78⅓ inches to be the diſtance of the center of gravity below the axis, and 40.07 the number of oſcillations per minute.
After executing part of the ſurvey by the ſide of the river, we fired a few balls upon the water, from the Convicts' or Proof Wharf, to try whereabouts they will fall, and thereby to judge of the proper places for the obſervers to be ſtationed at. The gun was no 2, with 8 ounces of powder, and was tried at different elevations. When the gun was elevated at 45 degrees, the balls ranged much too far, going beyond the ſtretch of the river, and falling on the coaſt of Eſſex below the point B. But at 15 degrees elevation, the balls ranged to a very convenient diſtance, namely, a little more than a mile. And their fall in the water could be very well ſeen from the ſide of the river nearly oppoſite the place of the fall, and ſometimes from the gun itſelf.
Upon this occaſion I took out with me, and employed the firſt claſs of Gentlemen Cadets belonging to the Royal Military Academy, namely, Meſſieurs Bartlett, Rowley, De Butts, Bryce, Wm. Fenwick, Pilkington, Edridge, and Watkins, who have gone through the ſcience of fluxions, and have applied it to ſeveral important conſiderations in natural philoſophy. Thoſe gentlemen I have voluntarily offered and undertaken to introduce to the practice of theſe intereſting experiments, with the application of the theory of them, which they have before ſtudied under my care. For, although it be not my academy duty, I am deſirous of doing this for their benefit, and as much as poſſible to aſſiſt the eager and diligent ſtudies of ſo learned and amiable a claſs of young gentle⯑men; who, as well as the whole body of ſtudents now in the upper academy, form the beſt ſet of young men I ever knew in my life; nay, I did not think it even poſſible, in our ſtate of ſociety in this country, for ſuch a number of gentlemen to exiſt together in the conſtant daily [220]habits of ſo much regularity and good manners; their behaviour being indeed perfectly exemplary, and the pure effect of true philoſophical principles, ariſing from a rational conviction of the propriety of a regu⯑lar good conduct, which is ſuch as would do honour to the pureſt and moſt perfect ſtate of ſociety that ever exiſted in the world: and I have no heſitation in predicting the great honour, and future ſervices, which will doubtleſs be rendered to the ſtate by ſuch eminent inſtances of virtue and abilities.
WENT out again with the ſame claſs of eight young gentlemen, to complete the ſurvey of the river ſide. The weather changed to rain after we were out, which continued the whole time, and to ſuch a de⯑gree as to wet us intirely through all our clothes. Yet every one went through the buſineſs, not only willingly, but even chearfully.
The weather rather windy and cloudy.
Barometer 29.8; Thermometer within 66°.
Went with Major Blomfield and the ſame claſs of cadets, and made the following ſet of fourteen experiments, the firſt 8 balls being fired into the pendulum, and the other 6 down the river, to get the correſponding ranges.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibr. pend | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | Pene⯑tration | ||||
| wt | diam | p | g | n | ||||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inch | lb | inches | feet | inches | |||
| 1 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.965 | 128 | 81.0 | 10 | 795.0 | 78.33 | 40.07 | 1438 | 18.0 |
| 2 | 139 | 85.7 | 9 | 796.6 | 35 | 07 | 1479 | 19.9 | ||||
| 3 | 141 | 90.3 | 11 | 798.3 | 38 | 07 | 1428 | |||||
| 4 | 146 | 92.7 | 12 | 800.0 | 40 | 07 | 1444 | 16.7 | ||||
| 5 | 163 | 96.2 | 12 | 801.6 | 43 | 06 | 1557 | 20.3 | ||||
| 6 | 171 | 94.0 | 10 | 803.2 | 45 | 06 | 1675 | 20.7 | ||||
| 7 | 149 | 89.1 | 13 | 804.8 | 47 | 06 | 1543 | 16.4 | ||||
| 8 | 144 | 91.5 | 11 | 806.4 | 50 | 06 | 1457 | 16.6 | ||||
| Time ſec | Range feet | means | 1503 | 18.9 | ||||||||
| 9 | 14 | 6110 | ||||||||||
| 10 | 6060 | |||||||||||
| 11 | not | |||||||||||
| 12 | ſeen | |||||||||||
| 13 | 5760 | |||||||||||
| 14 | 5735 | |||||||||||
| mean | 5916 | |||||||||||
The GUN was no 2. It was not hung on an axis, as in the two former years, but mounted on a ſmall carronade carriage, made for the [222]purpoſe, both in the laſt 6 rounds, which were fired down the river, and in the firſt 8 rounds, which were fired into the new pendulum, at the ſame diſtance as formerly, or about 35 feet, and each ball into a freſh part of the wood, both to obtain the force of the blow the more accu⯑rately, and to take the penetration of the ball in the ſolid wood, which we did every time by puſhing in a wire to touch the hinder part of the ball: theſe penetrations are various, according as the part ſtruck was more or leſs compact, and they are rather larger than was expected, the medium of all being 18 4/10, although the block of elm, as the carpen⯑ters aſſured us, was ſound, dry, and well-ſeaſoned wood. The penetra⯑tions are ſet down in the laſt column, and are for the fore part of the balls, the diameter having been always added to the length of the wire.
The POWDER was not of the ſame parcel as the two former years; but it was from the ſame maker, and made as nearly ſimilar to the former as might be. The charges were gently ſet home, and all circumſtances made alike. The mean length of the charge of 8 oz was 4.84.
The PENDULUM had been kept cloſe covered with a painted canvas cloth ſince the firſt day that it was weighed and meaſured, to preſerve it from the weather. The plugs weighed 9 ounces to every 11 inches in length; the whole weight of all the plugs, together with that of the 8 balls, make up 13 lb, wanting only an ounce and a half; and when the pendulum was taken down and weighed this afternoon, its weight was found to be 808 lb, which is juſt 13 lb more than its weight at firſt. So that it has neither loſt weight by evaporation, nor gained by imbibing moiſture: owing, probably, to the circumſtance of being covered by the painted canvas.—All the apparatus was in good order, and the experiments all very accurately made.
At the beginning of theſe experiments, the values of p, g, n, being p = 795, g = 78⅓, n = 40.07; if theſe values be ſubſtituted in the two theorems [223] [...] [...] for the correction of g and n, they become [...] [...] or [...] nearly. And by theſe theorems the numbers in the columns g and n are made out, the mean value of i, or point ſtruck, being 90.1.
The laſt 6 rounds were fired down the river from the Convicts' or Proof Wharf at A, and the place of the fall obſerved by two parties of the cadets, ſtationed at D and E. The gun had 15 degrees elevation. The fall of the firſt only could be ſeen at the gun, where the time of flight was obſerved by a ſtop watch, and found to be 14 ſeconds. The two parties of obſervers at D and E had no time-piece with them, ſo that the other times of flight could not be obſerved. The medium range is 5916 feet or 1972 yards. The laſt two balls went cloſe over the heads, and fell juſt beyond, the lower party of obſervers, at E; yet not⯑withſtanding their imminent danger, they gallantly reſolved to keep their ground, if any more rounds ſhould be fired, not knowing imme⯑diately that we intended not firing any more at that time. Theſe two rounds were probably deſlected thus a little from their courſe by the uſual cauſes of deviation. And perhaps the two former rounds had been ſtill farther deflected, and thrown on the land, as the obſervers ſaw nothing of them. But the gun was pointed in a direction rather nearer this ſouth ſide of the river.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Time | Range | Whereabouts the Balls fell | ||
| wt | diam | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | ſec | feet | ||
| 1 | 8 | 16 | 12 | 1.96 | 14 | 6460 | Near the middle of the river |
| 2 | 6080 | Near the north ſide | |||||
| 3 | |||||||
| 4 | 15 | 6040 | Ditto | ||||
| 5 | 15½ | 6540 | Ditto | ||||
| 6 | 15 | 6460 | Near the middle | ||||
| 7 | 14 | 5720 | On the ſouth bank, and within 40 | ||||
| means | 14.7 | 6216 | yards of the lower ſtation E | ||||
Theſe 7 rounds were fired down the river from the ſame place as before; the elevation of the gun being 15 degrees, and all other circum⯑ſtances the ſame as before. The gun was pointed nearly to the middle of the river; yet the balls fell moſtly wide of the direction, and that both ways, ſome falling near one ſide of the river, and ſome near the other, though there was not the leaſt wind. The times of flight were taken with a ſtop watch, at the lower ſtation of obſervers at E, by noting the time between ſeeing the flaſh of the gun and the plunge of the ball in the water. They run from 14 to 15½ ſeconds, and accord very well with the ranges, the larger to the larger: the medium is 14.7 ſeconds; and the medium range 6216 feet, or 2072 yards. No 3 was not ſeen. The mean length of charge 4.8 inches.
The ſame parties of young gentlemen kept their ſtation very gallantly, and make no heſitation in offering to attend and obſerve there for the remainder of the experiments, although ſome of the balls this day again fell near them, and one indeed within 40 yards of them.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Vibrat. pend | Point ſtruck | Plugs | Values of | Veloc. ball | Penetr. | ||||
| wt | diam | p | g | n | ||||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | lb | inches | feet | inches | ||||
| 1 | 4 | 16 | 12 | 1.96 | 99 | 79.0 | 9 | 805.3 | 78.48 | 40.06 | 1162 | 16.7 |
| 2 | 107 | 82.3 | 10 | 806.7 | 49 | 06 | 1208 | 16.4 | ||||
| 3 | 114 | 87.1 | 10 | 808.1 | 50 | 07 | 1218 | 16.7 | ||||
| 4 | 115 | 87.3 | 9 | 809.6 | 51 | 07 | 1228 | |||||
| mediums | 1204 | 16.6 | ||||||||||
We fired theſe 4 rounds into the ſame pendulum as we left hanging on September 2, which had been kept under cover ſince that time. After theſe 4 rounds, it weighed 811 lb, which is 2¾ lb leſs than it ought to be when the weight of the 4 balls and plugs are added to its former weight, and which 2¾ lb it muſt be ſuppoſed to have loſt by evaporation in the courſe of the 7 days, which was moſtly dry, warm weather.
The plugs weighed 9 oz to 14½ inches.
Mean length of the charge 3.0.
We could not venture to fire down the river this day, on account of the great number of ſhips that were upon it.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Penetr. | Recoil | ||
| wt | diam | |||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | inches | |
| 1 | 2 | 16 | 10 | 1.96 | 6.1 | 2.5 |
| 2 | 4 | 12.2 | 7.0 | |||
| 3 | 8 | 20.8 | 15.8 | |||
| 4 | 2 | 6.7 | 3.0 | |||
| 5 | 4 | 14.4 | 9.0 | |||
| 6 | 8 | 23.0 | 17.5 | |||
| 7 | 2 | 16 | 12 | 7.8 | 2.5 | |
| 8 | 4 | 14.0 | 7.5 | |||
| 9 | 8 | 20.7 | ||||
Theſe 9 balls were fired into the root end of a block of elm, laid upon the ground, to obtain the penetration with different charges, each ball being fired into a freſh and ſound part of the wood, and in the di⯑rection of the fibres. The wood was moiſt within, as we diſcovered by boring out the balls; but it was hard and firm of its kind, being in the root, or the root end after the body of the tree was ſawed off from it. The penetrations are for the fore part of the ball, as uſual.
The gun was no 2, and mounted, as in all the experiments of this year, on a ſmall ſea gun carriage, without trucks, but fixed on a baſe like a mortar bed, and ſlid along the ground or platform in recoiling.
The muzzle was placed at 79 inches from the face of the block. The mean penetrations and recoils are as follows: [227]
| Powder | Penetr. | Recoil |
| 2 oz | 6.9 | 2.7 |
| 4 | 13.5 | 7.8 |
| 8 | 21.2 | 16.7 |
So that the penetrations are nearly 7, 14, 21, or nearly as 1, 2, 3, or as the logarithms of the weights of powder.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Time | Range | ||
| wt | diam | |||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | ſeconds | feet | |
| 1 | 4 | 16 | 12 | 1.96 | ||
| 2 | ||||||
| 3 | 10 | 4730 | ||||
| 4 | 7¼ | 4030 | ||||
| 5 | 8 | 4450 | ||||
| 6 | 4380 | |||||
| 7 | ||||||
| 8 | ||||||
| mediums | 8.4 | 4398 | ||||
Theſe 8 rounds were fired down the river as before. The gun no 2, and elevation 15 degrees, as uſual. One party of the young gentlemen was ſtationed at D as before, but the other on the north ſide of the river at Deval's houſe at F. This laſt party ſaw only one ball plunge, and the firſt party ſaw four; which however proved ſufficient for determin⯑ing their ranges, becauſe they all fell near the middle of the river, a circumſtance which we alſo at the gun could ſometimes perceive.
[228]The mean time of flight is about 8½ ſeconds, and the mean range 4398 feet, or 1466 yards.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Penetr. | ||
| wt | diam | ||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | |
| 1 | 12 | 16 | 12 | 1.96 | 22.0 |
| 2 | 14 | 23.6 | |||
| 3 | 16 | 24.0 | |||
| 4 | 10 | 16 | 14 | 1.97 | 22.3 |
| 5 | 8 | 18.1 | |||
Theſe 5 balls were fired into the ſame block of elm root as on the 10th inſtant, to get a greater variety of penetrations.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Penetr. | Part of the Charge fired at | ||
| wt | diam | |||||
| oz | oz | dr | ||||
| 1 | 8 | 17 | 0 | 20.5 | Back part | |
| 2 | 20.6 | Back part | ||||
| 3 | 21.6 | Middle | ||||
| 4 | 20.5 | Middle | ||||
| 5 | 11.0 | Fore part | ||||
| 6 | 17.3 | Fore part | ||||
Theſe 6 alſo were fired, from the ſame gun, into the ſame block, to try the difference by firing the cartridge either behind, or before, or in the middle.—There muſt be ſome miſtake in the numbers in the laſt two rounds, which cannot poſſibly differ ſo much from the other numbers.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Elevation | Time | Range | ||
| wt | diam | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | degrees | ſeconds | feet | |
| 1 | 4 | 16 | 10 | 1.97 | 15 | 5180 | |
| 2 | 4 | 8¾ | 4370 | ||||
| 3 | 4 | ||||||
| 4 | 4 | 16 | 7 | 7¾ | 4020 | ||
| 5 | 2 | 45 | 5120 | ||||
| 6 | 2 | 21½ | 5300 | ||||
| 7 | 2 | 21 | 5200 | ||||
| 8 | 2 | 4120 | |||||
| 9 | 4 | 16 | 11 | 1.95 | 15 | ||
| 10 | 4 | 13½ | 5770 | ||||
| 11 | 2 | 16 | 7 | 1.97 | 45 | 23 | 5600 |
| 12 | 2 | 16 | 10 | ||||
Theſe 12 rounds were fired down the river; the gun, ſtations, parties of cadets, &c. as before. The fall of thoſe balls was not ſeen whoſe range is not ſet down. With 2 oz of powder the gun was elevated 45 degrees, but with 4 oz only 15 degrees, as before. The mediums are as below.
| Powder | Elev. | Time | Range |
| 2 oz | 45° | 22″ | 5068 |
| 4 | 15 | 8¼ | 4523 |
Rejecting no 10, as very doubtful; a miſtake moſt likely having been made in the weight of the powder.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Elevation | Time | Range | ||
| wt | diam | ||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | degrees | ſeconds | feet | |
| 1 | 2 | 16 | 12 | 1.95 | 45 | 20 | 5120 |
| 2 | 19 | 4730 | |||||
| 3 | 20½ | 5370 | |||||
| 4 | 20 | 5120 | |||||
| 5 | 22½ | 5510 | |||||
| 6 | 20 | 5050 | |||||
| 7 | 12 | 15 | 17 | 7120 | |||
| 8 | 10 D | 4860 D | |||||
| 9 | 9 D | 4880 D | |||||
| 10 | 14 | 6660 | |||||
| 11 | 5500 | ||||||
| 12 | 7520 | ||||||
Theſe 12 rounds were fired on the river, and obſerved as before. No• 8 and 9 are very doubtful: the means of the reſt are as below.
| Powder | Elevation | Time | Range |
| 2 oz | 45° | 20⅓ | 5150 |
| 12 | 15 | 15½ | 6700 |
99. The ſame day the following 6 rounds were fired into the block of elm root, to try the penetrations with and without wads; the firſt 4 [231]being with a wad over the powder, and hard rammed; the other two without.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Penetration | |||
| wt | diam | |||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | inches | ||
| 1 | 8 | 15 | 12 | 1.95 | 16.1 | With wads |
| 2 | 21.4 | With wads | ||||
| 3 | 20.6 | With wads | ||||
| 4 | 19.8 | With wads | ||||
| 5 | 19.8 | Without wads | ||||
| 6 | 21.0 | Without wads | ||||
| No | Powder | Ball's | Time | Range | ||
| wt | diam | |||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | ſeconds | feet | |
| 1 | 8 | 15 | 3 | 1.96 | 6330 | |
| 2 | 5770 | |||||
| 3 | ||||||
| 4 | 8½ | 4800 | ||||
| 5 | 4880 | |||||
| medium | 5600 | |||||
Theſe 5 rounds were fired on the river, and obſerved as before.
The GUN was no 3, and its elevation 15 degrees.
The balls were not good ones, and the ranges very irregular; and the medium 5600 feet, or 1867 yards, too low; perhaps owing to the light⯑neſs of the balls.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Time | Range | ||
| wt | diam | |||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | ſeconds | feet | |
| 1 | 8 | 15 | 12 | 1.96 | 5580 | |
| 2 | ||||||
| 3 | 10¼ | 5270 | ||||
| 4 | 5990 | |||||
| 5 | 9 | 4910 | ||||
| 6 | 11 | 5750 | ||||
| 7 | 9½ | 6140 | ||||
| 8 | 11 | 5700 | ||||
| means | 10 1/7 | 5620 | ||||
Theſe 8 were fired in the river, and obſerved as before.
The GUN was no 3, and was elevated 15 degrees.
The ranges are again low, probably from the lightneſs of the balls.
The uſual cauſes of deflection carried three of the balls, namely, the 1ſt, 7th, and 8th, very near the ſouth ſtation at E; and then fell almoſt cloſe to the party there. In general it was obſerved that the balls de⯑viate from their line of direction, or middle line of the river, to each ſide, by half the breadth of the river, or from 300 to 400 yards!
The end of Experiments in 1785.
| No | Powder | Ball's | Elevat gun | Time flt | Range | ||
| diam | wt | ||||||
| oz | inches | oz | dr | degrees | |||
| 1 | 2 | 1.96 | 16 | 6 | 15 | ||
| 2 | 1.96 | 6 | 14 D | 5000 D | |||
| 3 | 1.96 | 6 | 5040 D | ||||
| 4 | 1.96 | 6 | 8 | 3920 | |||
| 5 | 1.97 | 7 | 7½ | 3560 | |||
| 6 | 1.96 | 5 | 8½ | 3910 | |||
| 7 | 1.96 | 5 | 10½ | 4450 | |||
| 8 | 1.96 | 5 | 9½ | 4280 | |||
| 9 | 1.95 | 5 | 8½ | 3910 | |||
| 10 | 1.96 | 4 | 15 D | 5600 D | |||
| 11 | 1.96 | 4 | 8½ | 3910 | |||
| 12 | 1.96 | 4 | 11½ | 4750 | |||
| 13 | 1.96 | 4 | 9½ | 4270 | |||
| 14 | 1.96 | 4 | 10 | 4230 | |||
| 15 | 1.96 | 4 | 9½ | 4000 | |||
| 16 | 1.95 | 3 | 4960 D | ||||
| 17 | 1.95 | 9 | 9½ | 4420 | |||
| 18 | 4 | 1.95 | 3 | 4840 | |||
| 19 | 4 | 1.96 | 3 | 11½ | 4690 | ||
| 20 | 4 | 1.96 | 2 | 10½ | 5650 | ||
| medi⯑ums | 2 | 1.959 | 16 | 5 | 15 | 9¼ | 4130 |
| medi⯑ums | 4 | 1.957 | 16 | 2⅔ | 15 | 11 | 5060 |
The GUN was no 2.
[234]The ranges were taken from obſervations, as before, at Duval's houſe, and the firſt gibbet. The firſt 17 rounds were fired this year, with 2 ounces of powder, to complete the ſeries of ranges at 15 degrees eleva⯑tion of the gun; and the laſt three rounds, with 4 ounces, to try if the powder was of the ſame ſtrength as before: and which, by comparing theſe three ranges with thoſe of laſt year, appears to be now ſomewhat ſtronger. So that theſe ranges and times, it may be preſumed, are too great in reſpect of thoſe of laſt year. They are alſo evidently very irregular; owing perhaps to the inequalities of the balls, which were only the remaining outcaſts from the whole ſtock we firſt began with, having been rejected either from their lightneſs, or from the irregulari⯑ties of their ſurfaces. And ſometimes indeed the ranges and times, here ſet down, were not very accurately obtained. The mediums of all, except thoſe marked doubtful, are placed at the bottom.
103. WE have now got through this long three-years courſe of experiments; and have detailed them in ſo minute and circumſtantial a manner, as to enable every perſon fully to comprehend and make his own uſe of them; without ſubjecting him to the diſſatiſ⯑faction of having mediums and reſults forced upon him, unaccompanied with the fair and regular means of aſſuring himſelf both of their juſtice and propriety. We are now therefore to make ſome uſe of theſe experiments, by pointing out the philoſophical laws and deductions that flow from them, and making ſuch other remarks as may be ſuggeſted by the va⯑rious circumſtances of them, or that may be uſeful for improving or farther extending experiments attended with ſuch important conſequences in natural philoſophy. And for theſe beneficial purpoſes, it will firſt be neceſſary to bring the mediums and reſults together into an abſtract, or one comprehenſive point of view; to form as it were the ſure and regular foundation for the future ſtructure we hope to be able to raiſe upon them.
104. AND firſt we ſhall deduce the lengths or heights of the charge of powder, for every two ounces in weight; or the part of the bore of the gun which every charge occupies: a thing very neceſſary both to ſhew the part of the bore, occupied by the charge, correſponding to the greateſt or any other velocity of the ball, as alſo to compute a priori, [236]from theory, the velocity due to every charge of powder. Now the length of the charge was taken at every experiment, by means of the diviſions of inches and tenths marked on the rammer, and the mediums of moſt of them are ſpecified for each day in the preceding account of the experiments; and thoſe mediums of each day are here in the follow⯑ing table collected and ranged in columns, each under its reſpective weight at top, extending from 2 to 20 ounces:
| 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 |
| 1.7 | 3.2 | 4.6 | 5.9 | 6.93 | 8.4 | 9.8 | 10.6 | 12.3 | 13.2 |
| 1.7 | 3.2 | 4.4 | 5.9 | 6.97 | 8.2 | 9.27 | 11.0 | 12.15 | 13.3 |
| 2.1 | 3.3 | 4.5 | 6.1 | 6.9 | 8.3 | 9.55 | 11.2 | 13.2 | |
| 1.8 | 3.23 | 4.43 | 6.2 | 6.97 | 8.23 | 9.4 | 11.4 | ||
| 1.8 | 3.33 | 4.2 | 5.67 | 7.0 | 8.3 | 9.53 | 10.9 | ||
| 1.7 | 3.24 | 4.5 | 6.0 | 8.37 | 11.0 | ||||
| 1.7 | 3.2 | 4.44 | 5.7 | 8.07 | 10.8 | ||||
| 1.87 | 3.2 | 4.4 | 5.72 | 11.13 | |||||
| 1.9 | 3.1 | 4.37 | 5.6 | 11.38 | |||||
| 1.85 | 3.17 | 4.27 | 5.63 | 11.26 | |||||
| 1.9 | 2.9 | 4.28 | 5.65 | 11.1 | |||||
| 1.8 | 3.4 | 4.12 | 5.6 | 10.6 | |||||
| 1.9 | 3.13 | 5.6 | 10.97 | ||||||
| 1.9 | 3.1 | 5.83 | 10.87 | ||||||
| 1.83 | 3.08 | 5.7 | 10.85 | ||||||
| 1.73 | 3.4 | 5.77 | 10.79 | ||||||
| 3.1 | 5.88 | ||||||||
| 3.0 | 5.45 | ||||||||
| 2.95 | 5.4 | ||||||||
| 3.0 | 5.74 | ||||||||
| 3.1 | 5.85 | ||||||||
| 3.1 | 5.4 | ||||||||
| 3.03 | 4.84 | ||||||||
| 4.8 | |||||||||
| 1.82 | 3.15 | 4.38 | 5.66 | 6.95 | 8.27 | 9.51 | 10.99 | 12.22 | 13.23 |
and in the loweſt line are ſet down the means among all the former means, or numbers in each column, the numbers in which laſt line of [237]means are found by adding into one ſum the numbers in each column, and dividing that ſum by the number of thoſe parts. And thus we have obtained the mediums of the mediums for each day, which muſt be very near the truth. But to find how near they are to the truth, and to correct them, let theſe be collected and ranged as in the ſecond column of the following table of the heights of charges, or column of irregular
| Wt | Irregular | Regular | ||
| oz | means | diffs | diffs | means |
| 2 | 1.82 | 1.33 | 1.27 | 1.85 |
| 4 | 3.15 | 1.23 | 1.27 | 3.12 |
| 6 | 4.38 | 1.28 | 1.27 | 4.39 |
| 8 | 5.66 | 1.29 | 1.27 | 5.66 |
| 10 | 6.95 | 1.32 | 1.27 | 6.93 |
| 12 | 8.27 | 1.24 | 1.27 | 8.20 |
| 14 | 9.51 | 1.48 | 1.27 | 9.47 |
| 16 | 10.99 | 1.23 | 1.27 | 10.74 |
| 18 | 12.22 | 1.01 | 1.27 | 12.01 |
| 20 | 13.23 | 13.28 | ||
means. Then take the differences between each of theſe, and place them in the 3d column, or irregular differences; which would have been all equal if the mediums had been regular. Find then a medium among theſe unequal differences, by dividing their ſum by the number of them, and it will be found to be 1.27, which ſet in the 4th column of regular or equal differences. Then, as the numbers in the 3d column, the neareſt to this mean 1.27, are the differences between 6, 8, and 10 ounces, by ſuppoſing 5.66 to be the true length of the 8 ounce charge, I form all the others from it, by adding and ſubtracting continually the mean or common difference 1.27, and place them in the laſt column; which will therefore conſiſt of the true regular length of each charge, including both the powder and the neck of the flannel bag which con⯑tained it.
How much of each ſpace was really occupied by the neck of the bag, may be thus ſound: the firſt number 1.85 is the length of the [238]charge of 2 ounces, including the neck; and the common difference 1.27 is the real length of 2 ounces of powder in the bore; therefore, ſubtracting this number from the former, the remainder 0.58 is the mean length of the bore which was occupied by the neck of the bag in every charge. And, therefore, taking this number from each of thoſe in the laſt column, the remainders will ſhew the real length of bore occupied by the powder alone in each of the charges.
105. NEXT let us conſider the quantity of recoil, or extent of the vibration of each gun, for every charge of powder; and firſt without balls. Now as theſe recoils were meaſured ſometimes to one radius, and ſometimes to another, it will be proper to reduce them all to a common radius, as well as to a common weight of gun when it happens to vary in weight. In the firſt year's experiments, the radius was various, and the chords of recoil were always taken in inches; but in thoſe of the ſecond and third years, the radius was conſtantly 10 feet, or 120 inches, which was divided into 1000 equal parts, and the chords of vibration meaſured in thouſandth parts of the radius, each part being 12/100 of an inch. It will therefore be convenient to reduce the recoils of the firſt year, to the ſame radius and parts as thoſe of the other two years: which may be done as follows: Let r = any radius of the firſt year in inches, and c = a correſponding chord of recoil taken in inches and parts.
Then r ∶ 120 ∷ c ∶ 120c/r the chord correſponding to the ra⯑dius 120, and meaſured in inches; and 120 ∶ 1000 ∷ 120c/r ∶ 1000c/r the ſame chord as expreſſed in thouſandth parts of 120 inches.
Hence then, to reduce any chord of recoil, in the firſt year, multiply it by 1000, and divide the product by its own radius in inches; ſo ſhall [239]the quotient be the correſponding chord anſwering to the radius 120 inches, and expreſſed in thouſandth parts of that radius.
106. By the foregoing rule then having reduced all the chords of recoil to the radius 10 feet, and denoted them in thouſandth parts of that radius; the mediums of every day's experiments, collected and arranged, will be as below.
| Charge of Powder, | oz | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 12 | 16 |
| 22 | 53 | 85 | 113 | 176 | 221 | ||
| 21 | 53 | 119 | 165 | 215 | |||
| 21 | 55 | 116 | 220 | ||||
| GUN no 1 | 23 | 54 | 110 | ||||
| 23 | 55 | 108 | |||||
| 22 | 128 | ||||||
| 22 | 127 | ||||||
| mediums | 22 | 54 | 85 | 117 | 171 | 219 | |
| 23 | 52 | 123 | 236 | ||||
| 23 | 56 | 118 | 240 | ||||
| GUN no 2 | 24 | 124 | |||||
| 23 | 124 | ||||||
| 24 | |||||||
| mediums | 23 | 54 | 122 | 238 | |||
| 22 | 57 | 93 | 123 | 247 | |||
| 23 | 59 | 125 | 250 | ||||
| 23 | 58 | 125 | 259 | ||||
| 23 | 56 | 252 | |||||
| GUN no 3 | 23 | ||||||
| 23 | |||||||
| 24 | |||||||
| 25 | |||||||
| mediums | 23 | 57½ | 93 | 125 | 252 | ||
| 25 | 58 | 127 | 280 | ||||
| GUN no 4 | 24 | 58 | 131 | 255 | |||
| GUN no 4 | 26 | 56 | 261 | ||||
| 24 | 59 | ||||||
| mediums | 25 | 58 | 129 | 265 |
[240]Some of theſe mediums have not the greateſt degree of exactneſs that they are capable of, for want of a ſufficient number of repetitions, or numbers to take the mediums of. However, by a very ſmall and obvious correction, the more accurate mediums, for the moſt uſual charges of 2, 4, 8, and 16 ounces of powder, may be fairly ſtated as follows:
| Gun | Center of gravity | Vibrat. | Length of bore | Powder | |||
| 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | 16 oz | ||||
| no | inches | inches | Recoils without Balls | ||||
| 1 | 80.47 | 40.1 | 28.2 | 22 | 53 | 117 | 220 |
| 2 | 80.47 | 40.0 | 38.1 | 23 | 55 | 121 | 237 |
| 3 | 80.50 | 39.9 | 57.4 | 24 | 57 | 125 | 252 |
| 4 | 80.44 | 39.8 | 79.9 | 25 | 59 | 129 | 265 |
The recoils being eſtimated in parts of which the radius is 1000 : and the common weight of the gun, with its frame and leaden weights, being 917 lb; alſo the diſtance of the center of gravity below the axis, and the number of vibrations per minute, as ſet down in the 2d and 3d columns of the tablet above.
107. From the view and conſideration of theſe numbers, various ob⯑ſervations eaſily ariſe. As firſt, that, by obſerving the four columns, or vertical rows, it appears that the recoil of the gun, and conſequently the force of the powder upon it, always increaſes as the length of the gun increaſes, and that in a manner tolerably regular as far as the charge of 8 ounces; but after that, the increaſe is faſter: thus, between the ſhorteſt bore of 28 inches long, and the longeſt of 80 inches, the increaſe in the velocity of recoil with 2 ounces of powder is from 22 to 25, or about the ⅛ part; with 4 ounces of powder, it is from 53 to 59, or the 1/9 part; and with 8 ounces of powder, it is from 117 to 129, or the 1/10 part; but with 16 ounces of powder, the increaſe is from 220 to 265, or the ⅕ part. And this increaſe of recoil is chiefly, [241]if not intirely, to be aſcribed to the longer time the fluid of the inflamed powder acts upon the gun, in paſſing through the greater length of bore; at leaſt as far as to the charge of 8 ounces: but the extraordinary increaſe in the caſe of 16 ounces, ſeems to be partly owing to that, and partly to ſome of the powder, in this high charge, being blown out unfired from the ſhort gun. And from this circumſtance I would infer, that the whole of the charge of 8 ounces, without ball, is fired before it iſſues from the mouth of the ſhort gun, that is before the fluid expands through a ſpace of 22½ inches of bore. And hence, if the velocity of the fluid were known, we could aſſign the time within which all the powder is fired. If, for inſtance, the mean velocity of the fluid were only 5000 feet in a ſecond, though it is probably much more, the time would be only about the 250th part of a ſecond in which the 8 ounces would be all inflamed.
The foregoing are the rates of increaſe in the chord of recoil, or in the velocity of the gun, which is proportional to it. It muſt be re⯑marked however that the increaſe in the force of the powder will be about double of that of the recoil, becauſe the force is as the ſquare of the velocity: ſo that, from the ſhorteſt gun to the longeſt, the increaſe in the force of the powder with 2, 4, or 8 ounces, is about ¼, or from 4 to 5; and with 16 ounces of powder, the force is almoſt as 2 to 3, or the increaſe almoſt one half of the leſs force.
108. Again, if we contemplate the numbers on each horizontal line, that is, the recoils of each gun ſeparately, with the ſeveral charges of 2, 4, 8, and 16 ounces of powder, we ſhall find that, in each of them, the recoil increaſes from the beginning, to a certain part, in a greater ratio than the conſtant ratio, 2 to 1, of the powder increaſes; and after⯑wards in a leſs ratio than that of the powder. That the ratio of the recoils, in every gun, is greateſt at firſt, or with the leaſt charges of powder: that the ratio continually decreaſes as the charge increaſes: that the ratio, at firſt, is greateſt with the ſhorteſt gun, and ſo gradually [242]leſs and leſs all the way to the longeſt: but that, however, the ratio in the ſhorter guns decreaſe faſter than in the longer; and ſo as to come ſooner to the ratio of 2 to 1 in the ſhorter guns than in the longer; and after that, the ratios in the ſhort guns, with the ſame charge, are leſs than in the long ones. All theſe properties will perhaps appear ſtill plainer by arranging together the ſeveral ratios for each no of gun, as here below:
| Ratios for the Gun | ||||
| Powder | no 1 | no 2 | no 3 | no 4 |
| 2 | 2.41 | 2.39 | 2.37½ | 2.36 |
| 4 | 2.21 | 2.20 | 2.19 | 2.18 |
| 8 | 1.88 | 1.96 | 2.02 | 2.06 |
| 16 | ||||
| means | 2.17 | 2.18 | 2.19 | 2.20 |
where each column of ratios is found by dividing the recoils ſucceſſively by each other, from the beginning, namely, the recoil of 4 oz by that of 2, the recoil of 8 oz by that of 4, and the recoil of 16oz by that of 8. Alſo the firſt and ſecond lines rather decreaſe, but the 3d rather in⯑creaſes, and the laſt, or that of means, alſo rather increaſes.
And if we divide the firſt ratios, in the laſt table but one, ſucceſſively by each other, the 2d by the 1ſt, and the 3d by the 2d; and then again theſe laſt ratios or quotients by each other; and ſo on; we ſhall obtain the ſeveral orders of ratios for each gun, as follows, obſerving uniform laws:
| No 1 | No 2 | No 3 | No 4 | ||||||||||||
| 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | ||||||||||||
| 2.41 | 2.39 | 2.37½ | 2.36 | ||||||||||||
| 53 | .917 | 55 | .920 | 57 | .922 | 59 | .924 | ||||||||
| 2.21 | .93 | 2.20 | .97 | 2.19 | .100 | 2.18 | 1.02 | ||||||||
| 117 | .850 | 121 | .891 | 125 | .922 | 129 | .945 | ||||||||
| 1.88 | 1.96 | 2.02 | 2.06 | ||||||||||||
| 220 | 237 | 252 | 265 | ||||||||||||
where the firſt column, of each no or gun, contains the recoils with [243]2, 4, 8, 16 ounces of powder; the 2d the firſt ratios, or the ratios of the recoils; the 3d contains the 2d ratios, or the ratios of the firſt ratios; and the laſt column contains the 3d ratios, or the ratios of the 2d ratios.
Or, perhaps, for ſome purpoſes it will ſerve better to ſet the ſame table in the following form, where the vertical columns are changed into horizontal lines:
| No 1 | No 2 | No 3 | No 4 | ||||||||||||
| 22 | 53 | 117 | 220 | 23 | 55 | 121 | 237 | 24 | 57 | 125 | 252 | 25 | 59 | 129 | 265 |
| 2.41 | 2.21 | 1.89 | 2.39 | 2.20 | 1.96 | 2.37½ | 2.19 | 2.02 | 2.36 | 2.18 | 2.06 | ||||
| .917 | .850 | .920 | .891 | .922 | .922 | .924 | .945 | ||||||||
| .93 | .97 | 1.00 | 1.02 | ||||||||||||
109. BY collecting now the mean recoil of each gun for every day, after reducing them all to the ſame weight of gun, 917lb, and weight of ball, 16oz 13dr, and to the ſame radius 1000, in the manner ſpecified in Art. 105, they will ſtand as in this following table.
| Powder, | oz | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 |
| 90 | 148 | 197 | 241 | 260 | 290 | 294 | 329 | ||
| 91 | 145 | 196 | 226 | 253 | 273 | 295 | 331 | ||
| 199 | 234 | 260 | 281 | 313 | 331 | ||||
| GUN no 1 | 232 | 287 | |||||||
| 234 | |||||||||
| 240 | |||||||||
| 244 | |||||||||
| 239 | |||||||||
| mediums | 90 | 146 | 197 | 236 | 258 | 283 | 301 | 330 | |
| 92 | 152 | 207 | 249 | 274 | 296 | 305 | 360 | ||
| 95 | 157 | 244 | 276 | 304 | 343 | 364 | |||
| GUN no 2 | 244 | 348 | |||||||
| 246 | |||||||||
| mediums | 94 | 154 | 207 | 246 | 275 | 300 | 324 | 358 | |
| 99 | 166 | 216 | 259 | 399 | |||||
| GUN no 3 | 100 | 163 | 218 | 257 | 380 | ||||
| 164 | 260 | ||||||||
| mediums | 99 | 164 | 217 | 259 | 390 | ||||
| 101 | 163 | 266 | 397 | ||||||
| GUN no 4 | 417 | ||||||||
| mediums | 101 | 163 | 266 | 407 |
[245]Some of theſe mediums are not very accurate, for want of a good number of repetitions, and eſpecially thoſe of the laſt gun no 4, which has only one duplicate. In this gun the recoils appear to be all rather low in reſpect of the others, but more eſpecially that with the charge of 4 oz of powder, which is evidently much more defective than the reſt, and requires an increaſe of about 6 to make it uniform with the others, and which increaſe it would probably have received from future experi⯑ments, had there been any repetitions of it. Augmenting therefore only that number by 6, all the orders of means will be tolerably regular, and ſtand as below, for the moſt uſual charges of powder, namely, 2, 4, 8, and 16 ounces.
| Gun | Powder | |||
| no | 2 | 4 | 8 | 16 |
| Recoils with Balls | ||||
| 1 | 90 | 146 | 236 | 330 |
| 2 | 94 | 154 | 246 | 358 |
| 3 | 99 | 164 | 259 | 390 |
| 4 | 101 | 169 | 266 | 407 |
The common weight of ball being 16oz 13 dr, and the weight of the gun 917lb; the other circumſtances being as in Art. 106.
110. From the ſeveral vertical columns of this tablet of means, we diſcover, that the recoils increaſe always as the length of the gun in⯑creaſes; but that in the 4th or longeſt gun, the increaſe is leſs, in pro⯑portion, than in the others. And from the horizontal lines we perceive, that the recoil always increaſes as the charge of powder increaſes, and that in a manner tolerably regular; and alſo in continued geometrical proportion when the charges of powder are ſo; but the common ratio in the former progreſſion being only about ¼ of that in the latter. For, if the mediums, for each gun, be divided by each other, namely, the [246]2d by the 1ſt, the 3d by the 2d, and the 4th by the 3d, the quotients or ratios will come out as in the following tablet:
| Powder | Ratios for the Gun | |||
| no 1 | no 2 | no 3 | no 4 | |
| 2 | 1.62 | 1.64 | 1.66 | 1.67 |
| 4 | 1.61 | 1.60 | 1.58 | 1.57 |
| 8 | 1.40 | 1.45 | 1.50 | 1.53 |
| 16 | ||||
| means | 1.54 | 1.56 | 1.58 | 1.59 |
where the numbers in the vertical columns, or the ratios for each gun ſeparately, continually decreaſe; and the numbers in the horizontal lines, or for the different guns with the ſame weights of powder, rather in⯑creaſe in the firſt and third line, but decreaſe in the ſecond, and again rather increaſe in the laſt, which are the mediums of the three ratios in each column, and which mean ratios are rather more than ¾ of 2, the common ratio of the weights of powder, which are 2, 4, 8, 16 ounces.
And if we divide the numbers or ratios, in each column, continually by each other; and their quotients by each other again; the whole continued ſeries or columns of ratios, for each gun, will be as here below:
| No 1 | No 2 | No 3 | No 4 | ||||||||||||
| 90 | 94 | 99 | 101 | ||||||||||||
| 1.62 | 1.64 | 1.66 | 1.67 | ||||||||||||
| 146 | .994 | 154 | .976 | 164 | .952 | 169 | .940 | ||||||||
| 1.61 | .88 | 1.60 | .93 | 1.58 | 1.00 | 1.57 | 1.04 | ||||||||
| 236 | .870 | 246 | .906 | 259 | .950 | 266 | .974 | ||||||||
| 1.40 | 1.45 | 1.50 | 1.53 | ||||||||||||
| 330 | 358 | 390 | 407 | ||||||||||||
where the firſt column, in each no or gun, contains the recoils with 2, [247]4, 8, 16 ounces of powder; the 2d column contains the ratios of thoſe recoils; the 3d contains the 2d ratios, and the laſt the 3d ratios.
Or the ſame table may, for ſome purpoſes, be more conveniently placed as below, where the vertical columns are ranged in horizontal lines:
| No 1 | No 2 | No 3 | No 4 | ||||||||||||
| 90 | 146 | 236 | 330 | 94 | 154 | 246 | 358 | 99 | 164 | 259 | 390 | 101 | 169 | 266 | 407 |
| 1.62 | 1.61 | 1.40 | 1.64 | 1.60 | 1.45 | 1.66 | 1.58 | 1.50 | 1.67 | 1.57 | 1.53 | ||||
| .994 | .870 | .976 | .906 | .952 | .950 | .940 | .974 | ||||||||
| .88 | .93 | 1.00 | 1.04 | ||||||||||||
III. HAVING determined the mean recoil of the guns, both with and without balls, for the charges of 2, 4, 8, 16 ounces; we can now aſſign the mean velocity of the ball, for each gun and charge, from the recoils; if, as Robins has aſſerted, the force of the powder upon the gun be the ſame, whether it is fired with a ball or without one. For, if that property be generally true, then the velocity of the ball muſt be propor⯑tional to the difference of the chords of recoil with and without a ball; and that difference being multiplied by a certain conſtant number, will give the velocity of the ball itſelf; as we have before ſhewn.
Now if c denote the difference of thoſe chords, b the weight of the ball, G the weight of the gun, g the diſtance to its center of gravity, i the diſtance to the axis of the bore, and n the number of oſcillations the gun would make in a minute; then we have found, in Art. 68, that [248]59/96 × Ggc/bin will expreſs the velocity of the ball. And that when G = 917, g = 80.47, i = 89.15, and n = 40, which are the medium values of thoſe letters, then the ſame theorem becomes 51/4 × c / b for the velocity of the ball. And, farther, when the mean value of b is 1.051 or 16 oz 13 dr, the ſame theorem for the velocity becomes barely 12 1/7c. Subtracting however the 700th part in the gun no 1, and ad⯑ding in the other three guns, as follows, namely,
Therefore if each of the recoils without balls, in the laſt table of Art. 106, be taken from the correſponding recoils in Art. 109, and the re⯑mainders be multiplied by 12 1/7, making the additions and ſubtractions above-mentioned, we ſhall have the correſponding velocities of the ball by this method. And a ſynopſis of the whole, for each gun and charge, will be as in the following table:
| Charges, | 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | 16 oz | ||||||||||||
| Gun no | Recoil | Diff | Veloc of ball | Recoil | Diff | Veloc of ball | Recoil | Diff | Veloc of ball | Recoil | Diff | Veloc of ball | ||||
| with ball | without ball | with ball | without ball | with ball | without ball | with ball | without ball | |||||||||
| 1 | 90 | 22 | 68 | 825 | 146 | 53 | 93 | 1127 | 236 | 117 | 119 | 1443 | 330 | 220 | 110 | 1334 |
| 2 | 94 | 23 | 71 | 863 | 154 | 55 | 99 | 1203 | 246 | 121 | 125 | 1520 | 358 | 237 | 121 | 1471 |
| 3 | 99 | 24 | 75 | 913 | 164 | 57 | 107 | 1302 | 259 | 125 | 134 | 1631 | 390 | 252 | 138 | 1680 |
| 4 | 101 | 25 | 76 | 926 | 169 | 59 | 110 | 1340 | 266 | 129 | 137 | 1669 | 407 | 265 | 142 | 1730 |
And we ſhall hereafter ſee how far theſe agree with the velocities com⯑puted from the vibration of the pendulum.
112. THE four following tables contain the mediums of the velocities of the balls, as computed for each day, for all the principal charges of powder, and for each gun ſeparately; one table being allotted for each. In theſe tables all the mediums are arranged in a continued ſeries, in the chronological order as they occurred, and accompanied with all the cir⯑cumſtances neceſſary to be known; thus forming a fund or collection of elements, from which other arrangements and principles are to be deduced.
Each table conſiſts of ten columns. The firſt column contains the dates; the next three the ſtate of the weather and air; namely, the 2d column the hygrometer, or ſtate of the air as to dryneſs and moiſture; the 3d the barometer; and the 4th the thermometer; both which laſt inſtruments, it muſt be obſerved, were always placed in the ſhade, and within the houſe, while the experiments were made in the open air, where it was commonly much hotter than the degree ſhewn by the ther⯑mometer. The 5th column contains the weight of the charge of powder; the 6th and 7th the weight and diameter of the ball; the 8th and 9th the velocity of the ball, the former as computed from the vibration of the pendulum, and the latter from the recoil of the gun; and finally the 10th column contains the difference between theſe two velocities, which is marked with the negative ſign (−) when the velocity by the gun is the leſs of the two.
[250]
| Date | Hygrometer | Barometer | Thermom | Powder | Ball's | Velocity by the | Diff | |||
| wt | diam | pend | gun | |||||||
| 1783 | inches | degrees | oz | oz | dr | inches | feet | feet | feet | |
| June 30 | dry | 30.34 | 74 | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.95 | 1456 | 1315 | − 141 |
| July 17 | dry | 30.23 | 72 | 8 | 1.96 | 1471 | 1501 | 30 | ||
| 19 | dry | 30.12 | 70 | 2 | 797 | 832 | 35 | |||
| 19 | 4 | 1109 | 1145 | 36 | ||||||
| 31 | dry | 30.13 | 69 | 12 | 1412 | 1374 | − 38 | |||
| 31 | 16 | 1367 | 1334 | − 33 | ||||||
| Aug 12 | wet | 30.00 | 64 | 16 | 12½ | 1419 | 1399 | − 20 | ||
| Sept 10 | 2 | 785 | 838 | 53 | ||||||
| Sept 10 | dry | 29.7 | 60 | 4 | 1087 | 1122 | 35 | |||
| Sept 10 | 8 | 1353 | 1396 | 43 | ||||||
| 18 | 8 | 13 | 1383 | |||||||
| 18 | 10 | 1417 | ||||||||
| 18 | 12 | 1375 | ||||||||
| 18 | 14 | 1333 | ||||||||
| 18 | dry | 30.08 | 64 | 16 | 1243 D | |||||
| 18 | 20 | 1144 | ||||||||
| 18 | 24 | 1194 | ||||||||
| 18 | 32 | 880 | ||||||||
| 18 | 36 | 838 | ||||||||
| 30 | 6 | 14 | 1331 | |||||||
| 30 | 8 | 1386 | ||||||||
| 30 | dry | 30.25 | 64 | 10 | 1402 | |||||
| 30 | 12 | 1453 | ||||||||
| 30 | 14 | 1402 | ||||||||
| 1784 Aug 4 | wet | 6 | 1295 | 1339 | 44 | |||||
| 11 | 6 | 1368 | ||||||||
| 11 | 8 | 15 | 1.97 | 1475 | ||||||
| 11 | hazy | 30.25 | 65 | 10 | 15 | 1493 | ||||
| 11 | 12 | 14⅔ | 1520 | |||||||
| 11 | 14 | 14⅔ | 1528 | |||||||
| Sept 10 | 2 | 12 | 1.96 | 755 | ||||||
| Sept 10 | fair | 4 | 1131 | 1170 | 39 | |||||
| Sept 10 | 6 | 1370 | 1358 | − 12 | ||||||
| Sept 10 | 8 | 1475 | ||||||||
| 21 | 4 | 12 | 1.97 | 1124 | ||||||
| 21 | fair | 6 | 12 | 1.97 | 1372 | |||||
| 21 | 8 | 11 | 1.96 | 1445 | ||||||
| Oct. 4 | 2 | 13 | 1.96 | 759 | ||||||
| Oct. 4 | dry | 4 | 12 | 1.96 | 1086 | |||||
| Oct. 4 | 6 | 12 | 1.96 | 1325 | ||||||
| Oct. 4. | 8 | 12 | 1.96 | 1472 | ||||||
| 5 | dry | 8 | 13 | 1.96 | 1411 | |||||
| 6 | dry | 8 | 9 | 1.95 | 1436 | |||||
| 11 | hazy | 8 | 7 | 1.95 | 1444 | |||||
[251]
| Date | Hygrometer | Barometer | Thermom | Powder | Ball's | Velocity by the | Diff | |||
| wt | diam | pend | gun | |||||||
| 1783 | inches | degrees | oz | oz | dr | inches | feet | feet | feet | |
| July 23 | 2 | 16 | 13½ | 1.96 | 793 | 840 | 47 | |||
| July 23 | dry | 29.88 | 70 | 4 | 13½ | 1135 D | 1207 | 72 | ||
| July 23 | 8 | 13 | 1566 | 1592 | 26 | |||||
| July 23 | 16 | 13 | 1660 | 1499 | −161 | |||||
| Aug 12 | wet | 30.00 | 64 | 16 | 12½ | 1676 | 1497 | −179 | ||
| Sept 11 | 2 | 856 | 846 | −10 | ||||||
| Sept 11 | dry | 29.93 | 60 | 4 | 1239 | 1220 | −19 | |||
| Sept 11 | 8 | 1571 | 1452 | −119 | ||||||
| Sept 11 | 8 | 12 | 1569 | |||||||
| 25 | 10 | 1608 | ||||||||
| 25 | dry | 29.93 | 59 | 12 | 1615 | |||||
| 25 | 14 | 1517 D | ||||||||
| 25 | 16 | 1664 D | ||||||||
| 29 | 6 | 11½ | 1448 | |||||||
| 29 | 8 | 1561 | ||||||||
| 29 | 10 | 1618 | ||||||||
| 29 | dry | 30.28 | 64 | 12 | 1669 | |||||
| 29 | 14 | 1662 | ||||||||
| 29 | 16 | 1637 | ||||||||
| 29 | 18 | 11 | 1598 | |||||||
| 29 | 20 | 1639 D | ||||||||
| 1785 | ||||||||||
| Sept 2 | cloudy | 8 | 13 | 1.96 | 1503 | |||||
| 9 | dry | 4 | 12 | 1.96 | 1204 | |||||
[252]
| Date | Hygrometer | Barometer | Thermom | Powder | Ball's | Velocity by the | Diff | |||
| wt | diam | pend | gun | |||||||
| 1783 | inches | degrees | oz | oz | dr | inches | feet | feet | feet | |
| July 12 | dry | 16 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 2030 | 1706 | − 324 | ||
| 18 | dry | 30.28 | 68 | 4 | 1.96 | 1353 | 1321 | − 32 | ||
| 18 | 8 | 1766 | 1620 | −146 | ||||||
| 19 | dry | 30.12 | 70 | 2 | 898 | 921 | 23 | |||
| Aug 13 | cloudy | 30.17 | 64 | 8 | 12½ | 1803 | 1594 | −209 | ||
| Aug 13 | 16 | 1966 | 1542 | − 424 | ||||||
| Sept 8 | moiſt | 30.03 | 61 | 2 | 13 | 926 | 928 | 2 | ||
| Sept 8 | 4 | 1334 | 1266 | − 68 | ||||||
| 1784 | ||||||||||
| Aug 5 | dry | 29.98 | 68 | 6 | 14 | 1.97 | 1616 | |||
| Sept 11 | 4 | 15 | 2 | 1.87 | 1225 | |||||
| Sept 11 | 4 | 16 | 2 | 1.92 | 1244 | |||||
| Sept 11 | dry | 4 | 16 | 14 | 1.97 | 1346 | ||||
| Sept 11 | 8 | 15 | 2 | 1.87 | 1662 | |||||
| Sept 11 | 8 | 16 | 3 | 1.92 | 1728 | |||||
| Sept 11 | 8 | 16 | 14 | 1.97 | 1815 | |||||
| 16 | 4 | 16 | 9 | 1.96 | 1388 D | |||||
| Date | Hygrometer | Barometer | Thermom | Powder | Ball's | Velocity by the | Diff | |||
| wt | diam | pend | gun | |||||||
| 1783 | inches | degrees | oz | oz | dr | inches | feet | feet | feet | |
| July 29 | dry | 29.90 | 72 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.96 | 1936 | 1643 | −293 |
| July 29 | 16 | 2161 | 1656 | − 505 | ||||||
| 30 | dry | 30.06 | 69 | 2 | 968 | 929 | − 39 | |||
| 30 | 4 | 12 | 1375 | 1295 | − 80 | |||||
| 1784 | ||||||||||
| Oct 12 | dry | 16 | 11 | 2060 | ||||||
[253]113. The foregoing tables contain the ſeveral mediums of velocities, for each day, and for all varieties in the circumſtances of powder, and weight and diameter of ball. It will now then be proper to collect to⯑gether all the repetitions of the ſame charge or weight of powder, and to take the mediums of all thoſe mediums, to ſerve as fixed radical numbers, or eſtabliſhed degrees of velocity, adapted to all the various charges of powder, and length of gun. And for this purpoſe, I ſhall reduce the numbers of theſe tables all to one common weight and dia⯑meter of ball, namely, to the weight 16 oz 13 dr, and the diameter 1.96 inches, which are the numbers that moſt commonly occur. And this reduction will be very well deduced from the experiments of September 11, 1784, when ſeveral trials were made with divers weights and diame⯑ters of ball, and with both 4 oz and 8 oz of powder, the reſults of which accord very well together. In the experiments of that day, it was found that, with the 4 oz charges, 1/7 of the whole velocity is loſt by the dif⯑ference of 1/10 of an inch in the diameter of the ball; and, with the 8 oz charge, 2/15 of the velocity is loſt by the ſame difference of windage. But the quantity of inflamed fluid which eſcapes, will be nearly as the difference between the area of the circle of the bore and the great circle of the ball, or the force will be as the ſquare of the ball's diameter; and the velocity, we know, is as the ſquare root of the force: and there⯑fore the velocity is as the diameter of the ball; and the difference in the velocity, as the difference of the diameter, or as the windage. Hence, if w denote any difference of windage in parts of an inch, or difference between 1.96 and the diameter of any ball, and 1/m the part of the experi⯑mented velocity loſt by 1/10 of an inch difference of windage; then ſhall 1/10 ∶ w ∷ 1/m ∶ 10w/m, which laſt term will ſhew what part of the ex⯑perimented velocity is loſt by the increaſe of windage denoted by 10. By this rule then, I reduce all the velocities to what they would have been, had the diameter of the ball been always 1.96. It is to be noted [254]however, that the value of m will vary with the charge of powder: with 4 ounces of powder, it was found that 1/m was 1/7 of the whole velocity, or ⅙ of the experimented velocity; but with 8 oz of powder, 1/m was found to be 2/15 of the whole, or 2/13 of the experimented velocity. We ſhall not be far from the truth therefore, if we take the following values of 1/m, to the ſeveral correſponding charges of powder; that is, as far as 16 oz in the guns no 3 and 4, and then returning backwards again as the powder is increaſed above 16 oz, by 2 oz at a time; but in the gun no 2, to continue only to 14 oz, and then return backwards again for all above 14 oz; and for the gun no 1, to continue only to 12 oz, and then return backwards for all above that charge.
| Powder | Value of 1/m |
| 2 | 2/11 = .182 |
| 4 | ⅙ = .167 |
| 6 | 4/25 = .160 |
| 8 | 2/13 = .154 |
| 10 | 4/27 = .148 |
| 12 | 1/7 = .143 |
| 14 | 4/29 = .138 |
| 16 | 2/15 = .133 |
Such then is the reduction of the velocity on account of the windage. And as to that for the different weights of the ball, we know that the velocity varies in the reciprocal ſubduplicate ratio of the weight; and according to this rule the numbers were corrected on account of the different weights of ball. After theſe reductions then are made, the numbers in the foregoing tables, arranged under their reſpective charges of powder, will be as here below, for a ball of 1.96 diameter, and weighing 16 oz 13 dr.
[255]
| Powder, | oz | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 |
| 797 | 1109 | 1334 | 1471 | 1417 | 1412 | 1333 | 1478 | ||
| 784 | 1086 | 1298 | 1352 | 1405 | 1375 | 1405 | 1367 | ||
| 754 | 1129 | 1371 | 1383 | 1476 | 1453 | 1511 | 1418 | ||
| 759 | 1103 | 1368 | 1389 | 1503 | 1243 D | ||||
| 1084 | 1347 | 1458 | |||||||
| GUN no 1 | 1322 | 1472 | |||||||
| 1439 | |||||||||
| 1469 | |||||||||
| 1411 | |||||||||
| 1447 | |||||||||
| 1449 | |||||||||
| mediums | 774 | 1102 | 1340 | 1431 | 1433 | 1436 | 1416 | 1377 | |
| 794 D | 1136 D | 1444 | 1566 | 1605 | 1612 | 1657 | 1660 | ||
| 855 | 1238 | 1569 | 1613 | 1664 | 1674 | ||||
| GUN no 2 | 1204 | 1566 | 1661 | ||||||
| 1557 | 1632 | ||||||||
| 1503 | |||||||||
| mediums | 825 | 1191 | 1444 | 1552 | 1609 | 1638 | 1657 | 1656 | |
| 898 | 1353 | 1593 | 1766 | 2030 | |||||
| 926 | 1334 | 1801 | 1966 | ||||||
| GUN no 3 | 1327 | 1793 | |||||||
| 1378 D | |||||||||
| mediums | 912 | 1348 D | 1593 | 1787 | 1998 | ||||
| 968 | 1373 | 1936 | 2161 | ||||||
| GUN no 4 | 2052 | ||||||||
| mediums | 968 | 1373 | 1936 | 2106 |
114. Theſe laſt medium velocities, for each gun, will be tolerably [256]near the truth; and the more ſo, commonly, as the number of the other mediums is the greater. For want, however, of a ſufficient number of each ſort, there are ſome ſmall irregularities among the final mediums, which may be corrected, for the moſt part, by adding or ſubtracting 3 or 4 feet, as they are ſometimes too little, and ſometimes too great. And theſe ſmall deviations will be very eaſily diſcovered by dividing the mediums by each other, namely, each of the velocities for 4, 6, 8, &c. ounces of powder, by that for 2 ounces. For we know, from the prin⯑ciples of forces, and other experiments, that the velocities will be nearly as the ſquare roots of the quantities of powder; that is, while the length of the charge does not much ſhorten the length of the bore before the ball; but gradually deviating from that proportion more and more, as the charge of powder is increaſed in length; becauſe the force has gra⯑dually a leſs diſtance and time to act upon the ball in. Now by dividing the quantities of powder 4, 6, 8, &c. by 2, the quotients 2, 3, 4, &c. ſhew the ratios of the charges; and the roots of theſe numbers, namely,
ſhew the ratios which the velocities would have to each other nearly, if the empty part of the bore was always of the ſame length. But as the vacant part always decreaſes as the charge increaſes, the ratios of the velocities may be expected to fall ſhort of thoſe above, and the ſooner and the more ſo, as the gun is ſhorter. Accordingly, on trial, we find the ratios hold pretty well, even in the ſhorteſt gun, as far as to the 6oz charge; but in the 8oz charge it falls about 1/13 or 1/14 part below the true ratio, being 1.85 inſtead of 2. In the longer guns, the proportions hold out gradually longer, and the deviations are always leſs and leſs: thus, in the 2d gun, the ratio for the 8oz charge is about 1.895, in the 3d it is 1.945, and in the 4th gun it is 1.999 or 2 very nearly. And ſo for other charges. Correcting then ſome of the mediums by [257]means of this property, the more accurate radical medium velocities, for each gun, with the ſeveral charges of 2, 4, 6, and 8 ounces of powder, will be as here below:
| Powder | Gun no 1 | No 2 | No 3 | No 4 | ||||||||||||
| Ratio. | Veloc. | Dif 1. | 11. | Ratio. | Veloc. | Dif 1. | 11. | Ratio. | Veloc. | Dif 1. | 11. | Ratio. | Veloc. | Dif 1. | 11. | |
| 2 | 780 | 835 | 920 | 970 | ||||||||||||
| 320 | 345 | 380 | 400 | |||||||||||||
| 4 | 1.140 | 1100 | 80 | 1.414 | 1180 | 80 | 1.413 | 1300 | 90 | 1.412 | 1370 | 90 | ||||
| 240 | 265 | 290 | 310 | |||||||||||||
| 6 | 1.731 | 1340 | 150 | 1.730 | 1445 | 130 | 1.729 | 1590 | 90 | 1.732 | 1680 | 50 | ||||
| 90 | 135 | 200 | 260 | |||||||||||||
| 8 | 1.850 | 1430 | 1.893 | 1580 | 1.945 | 1790 | 2.000 | 1940 | ||||||||
where the velocity is ſet in large characters in the middle column; on the left hand in a ſmall character, is the ratio, which is found by dividing each velocity by the firſt, the law of which ratios has been mentioned above; and on the right hand are the columns of firſt and ſecond dif⯑ferences; the firſt being the difference between each two ſucceeding numbers, and the ſecond the differences of thoſe differences.
Or, for ſome purpoſes, it may be more convenient to rangethe veloci⯑ties, &c. as here below:
| Gun no | 2 oz | 4 oz | 6 oz | 8 oz | |||||||
| 1 | 780 | 1.410 | 1100 | 1.731 | 1340 | 1.850 | 1430 | ||||
| 55 | 80 | 105 | 150 | ||||||||
| 2 | 835 | 1.414 | 1180 | 1.730 | 1445 | 1.893 | 1580 | ||||
| 85 | 120 | 145 | 210 | ||||||||
| 3 | 920 | 1.413 | 1300 | 1.729 | 1590 | 1.945 | 1790 | ||||
| 50 | 70 | 90 | 150 | ||||||||
| 4 | 970 | 1.412 | 1370 | 1.732 | 1680 | 2.000 | 1940 | ||||
where the numbers are here placed in horizontal lines, which before were vertical; and vertical here, thoſe which before were horizontal. And where the law, both of the ratios and differences, is evident. We alſo hence perceive how, for each charge, the velocity of the ball is continually increaſed as the gun is longer.
And theſe velocities may be conſidered as ſtandard radical numbers, here depoſited, and ready to be applied to any purpoſe, in which the conſideration of the velocity can be uſeful. And thoſe for the other charges of powder will be as in the general table in Art. 113.
[258]115. Theſe velocities however, it muſt be remarked, are thoſe with which the ball ſtrikes the pendulum, after paſſing through the air be⯑tween it and the muzzle of the gun; and conſequently they are leſs than the velocities with which it immediately iſſues from the gun, by as much velocity as the ball loſes by the reſiſtance of the air, in its flight through that ſpace. Now we have found, in Art. 33, that the firſt velocities loſe at leaſt their 84th part by that reſiſtance, when the air behind the ball is ſuppoſed inſtantly to fill up the place always quitted by the ball in its flight. But as this is not exactly the caſe, the air ruſhing into a vacuum with a certain finite velocity, therefore the part loſt will be gra⯑dually more and more as the ball moves ſwifter, till its velocity become equal to that of the air itſelf; after which the part loſt will remain con⯑ſtant. And Mr. Robins aſſerts that the velocity loſt by very ſwift motions, is about 3 times as great as that loſt by ſlow ones; and there⯑fore that will be about the 28th part. So that the loſs will always lie between the 84th part and the 28th part. I ſhall therefore leave it in this uncertain ſtate, till other experiments enable us to aſcertain what may be the exact proportion of loſs peculiar to every degree of velocity.
116. From the general table of medium velocities in Art. 113, it is evident that, for each gun, the velocity increaſes with the charge to a certain extent, where it is greateſt; and that afterwards it gradually decreaſes as the charge is increaſed. It farther appears that the point, or charge, at which the velocity is the greateſt, is different in the guns of different lengths; the charge which gives the maximum of velocity, being always greater, as the gun is longer. And by tracing this increaſe of charge, from the beginning, to the point of greateſt velocity, it ap⯑pears that, with the 1ſt, 2d, and 3d guns, the charges which give the greateſt velocities, are nearly as follows, viz.
[259]Here it will not be ſo proper to ſpecify what portion of the weight of the ball theſe weights of powder are; being no ways regulated by that circumſtance; but what portion of the bore of the gun is filled with theſe quantities of powder. Now, by the table of the lengths of charges in Art. 104, it appears that the lengths of the charges of 12, 14, and 16oz, are theſe, viz.
Then dividing each length of charge by its correſponding length of gun, we obtain nearly theſe three following fractions, viz.
which expreſs what part of the bore is filled with powder, when the greateſt velocity is given to the ball, with each of theſe lengths of gun. And which therefore is not one and the ſame conſtant part for all lengths of gun, but varying nearly in the reciprocal ſubduplicate ratio of the length of the bore.
117. Having ſo far ſettled the degree of velocity of the ball, as de⯑termined by the vibration of the pendulum, we may in like manner now proceed to aſſign the mean velocities, as deduced from the recoil of the gun. The repetitions in this latter way are not ſo numerous as in the former; but, ſuch as they are, we ſhall here abſtract them from the general tables in Art. 112, reducing them, however, all to the ſame common weight and diameter of ball, as was done in Art. 113.
[260]
| Powder, | oz | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 12 | 16 |
| 832 | 1145 | 1344 | 1501 | 1374 | 1337 | ||
| GUN no 1 | 837 | 1120 | 1352 | 1393 | 1334 | ||
| 1165 | 1396 | ||||||
| mediums | 835 | 1143 | 1348 | 1447 | 1374 | 1356 | |
| 841 | 1209 | 1592 | 1499 | ||||
| GUN no 2 | 845 | 1218 | 1450 | 1494 | |||
| mediums | 843 | 1213 | 1521 | 1496 | |||
| 921 | 1321 | 1620 | 1706 | ||||
| GUN no 3 | 928 | 1266 | 1591 | 1540 | |||
| mediums | 925 | 1294 | 1605 | 1623 | |||
| GUN no 4 | 929 | 1293 | 1643 | 1656 |
Theſe mediums however are not ſo exact as thoſe in Art. 111, be⯑cauſe thoſe were deduced from a greater number of particulars. We ſhall therefore chiefly adopt thoſe that were ſtated in that article, for the radical ſtandard velocities of the ball, as determined from the recoil of the gun, excepting in ſome inſtances when the other is uſed, and ſometimes the mediums of both. So that the final mediums will be as follows:
| Gun no | 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | 16 oz |
| 1 | 830 | 1135 | 1445 | 1345 |
| 2 | 863 | 1203 | 1521 | 1485 |
| 3 | 919 | 1294 | 1631 | 1680 |
| 4 | 929 | 1317 | 1669 | 1730 |
[261]118. Let us now compare theſe velocities, deduced from the recoil of the gun, with thoſe that are ſtated in Art. 113 and 114, which were determined from the pendulum; that we may ſee how near they will agree together. And, in this compariſon, it will be ſufficient to employ the velocities for 2, 4, 8, and 16 ounces of powder; this will be the moſt certain alſo, as theſe mediums are better determined than moſt of the others.
| Gun no | 2 oz | 4 oz | 8 oz | 16 oz | ||||||||
| Velocity by | Dif | Velocity by | Dif | Velocity by | Dif | Velocity by | Dif | |||||
| gun | pend | gun | pend | gun | pend | gun | pend | |||||
| 1 | 830 | 780 | 50 | 1135 | 1100 | 35 | 1445 | 1430 | 15 | 1345 | 1377 | − 32 |
| 2 | 863 | 835 | 28 | 1203 | 1180 | 23 | 1521 | 1580 | − 59 | 1485 | 1656 | −171 |
| 3 | 919 | 920 | −1 | 1294 | 1300 | − 6 | 1631 | 1790 | −159 | 1680 | 1998 | − 318 |
| 4 | 929 | 970 | − 41 | 1317 | 1370 | − 53 | 1669 | 1940 | −271 | 1730 | 2106 | − 376 |
In this table, the firſt column ſhews the number of the gun; and its velocity of ball, both by the vibration of the gun and pendulum, with their differences, is on the ſame line with it, for the ſeveral charges of powder. After the firſt column, the reſt of the page is divided into four ſpaces, for the four charges, 2, 4, 8, 16 ounces; and each of theſe is divided into three columns: in the firſt of the three, is the velocity of the ball as determined from the vibration of the gun; in the ſecond is the ball as determined from the vibration of the pendulum; and in the third is the difference between the two, which is marked with the negative ſign, or −, when the former velocity is leſs than the latter, otherwiſe it is poſitive.
119. From the compariſon contained in the laſt article, it appears, in general, that the velocities, determined by the two different ways, do not [262]agree together; and that therefore the method of determining the ve⯑locity of the ball from the recoil of the gun, is not generally true, although Mr. Robins and Mr. Thompſon had ſuſpected it to be ſo; and conſequently that the effect of the inflamed powder on the recoil of the gun, is not exactly the ſame when it is fired without a ball, as when it is fired with one. It alſo appears that this difference is no ways regular, neither in the different guns with the ſame charge, nor in the ſame gun with different charges of powder. That with very ſmall charges, the velocity by the gun is greater than that by the pendulum; but that the latter always gains upon the former, and ſoon becomes equal to it; and then exceeds it more and more as the charge of powder is increaſed. That the particular charge, at which the two velocities become equal, is different in the different guns; and that this charge is leſs, or the equality ſooner takes place, as the gun is longer. And all this, whether we uſe the actual velocity with which the ball ſtrikes the pendulum, or the ſame increaſed by the velocity loſt by the reſiſtance of the air, in its flight from the gun to the pendulum.
120. HAVING diſpatched what relates to the velocity of the ball, we may now proceed in like manner to the experiments made to determine the actual ranges, and the times of flight of the balls.
The mediums of theſe, hitherto obtained, are not ſo numerous as could be wiſhed; however, ſuch as they are, we ſhall here collect them in the ſame manner as we did the circumſtances relating to the initial velocities in Art. 112.
[263]
| Date | Hygrometer | Barometer | Thermom | Powder | Ball's | Elevat gun | Time fit | Range | ||
| wt | diam | |||||||||
| 1785 | inches | degrees | oz | oz | dr | inches | degrees | ſec | feet | |
| Sept 2 | cloudy | 29.80 | 66 | 8 | 16 | 13 | 1.965 | 15 | 14.0 | 5916 |
| 8 | hazy | 30.02 | 65 | 8 | 16 | 12 | 1.96 | 15 | 14.7 | 6216 |
| 14 | clear | 30.50 | 67 | 4 | 16 | 12 | 1.96 | 15 | 8.4 | 4398 |
| 28 | clear | 30.35 | 60 | 4 | 16 | 10 | 1.963 | 15 | 8.3 | 4523 |
| 28 | 2 | 16 | 8 | 1.97 | 45 | 22.0 | 5068 | |||
| 29 | clear | 30.35 | 60 | 2 | 16 | 12 | 1.95 | 45 | 20.3 | 5150 |
| 29 | 12 | 16 | 12 | 1.95 | 15 | 15.5 | 6700 | |||
| 1786 | ||||||||||
| June 12 | clear | 29.89 | 63 | 4 | 16 | 3 | 1.957 | 15 | 11.0 | 5060 |
| June 12 | 2 | 16 | 5 | 1.959 | 15 | 9.2 | 4130 | |||
| 1785 | ||||||||||
| Oct 4 | rain | 29.93 | 8 | 15 | 3 | 1.96 | 15 | 5600 | ||
| 11 | clear | 29.88 | 60 | 8 | 15 | 12 | 1.96 | 15 | 10.1 | 5620 |
Of theſe, the firſt 6 days experiments were with the gun no 2; and the laſt two days, with the gun no 3.
121. Now, by taking again the mediums of theſe, both in the balls, and their ranges and times of flight, they will finally come out as follows:
| GUN | Powder | Ball's | Elevat gun | Time fit | Range | Veloc. ball | ||
| wt | diam | |||||||
| oz | oz | dr | inches | degrees | ſec | feet | feet | |
| 2 | 16 | 10 | 1.96 | 45 | 21.2 | 5109 | 863 | |
| 2 | 16 | 5 | 1.959 | 15 | 9.2 | 4130 | 868 | |
| No 2 | 4 | 16 | 8⅓ | 1.96 | 15 | 9.2 | 4660 | 1234 |
| 8 | 16 | 12½ | 1.962 | 15 | 14.4 | 6066 | 1644 | |
| 12 | 16 | 12 | 1.95 | 15 | 15.5 | 6700 | 1676 | |
| No 3 | 8 | 15 | 7½ | 1.96 | 15 | 10.1 | 5610 | 1938 |
[264]And in the laſt column are added the correſponding initial velocities, which the ball would have at the muzzle of the gun; which have been extracted from the medium velocities, as determined by the pendulum, and here reduced to the peculiar weight and diameter of ball in each particular caſe of this table, by the reductions ſpecified in Art. 113, and by augmenting the velocity for the 2 ounce charge by its 36th part, and the others by their 28th part, for the loſs of velocity in paſſing from the gun to the pendulum.
So that in this little table, we have the following concomitant data, determined with a tolerable degree of preciſion; namely, the weight of powder, the weight and diameter of the ball, the initial or projectile velocity, the elevation of the gun, the time of the ball's flight, and its range, or the diſtance of the horizontal plane. From which it is hoped that the reſiſtance of the medium, and its effect on other elevations, &c. may be determined, and ſo afford the means of deriving eaſy rules for the ſeveral caſes of practical gunnery: a ſubject intended to be proſecuted in a future volume of theſe Tracts.
I SHALL here ſelect only the depths of the penetrations into the block of wood, that have been made in the courſe of the laſt year's experi⯑ments, as they are the moſt numerous and uniform, and were all made with the ſame gun, namely, no 2. I ſhall alſo ſelect only thoſe for 2, 4, and 8 ounces of powder, as they are the moſt uſeful and certain numbers for affording ſafe and general concluſions; and beſides, the trials with other charges are too few in number, being commonly no more than one of each.
[265]
| Powder | 2 | 4 | 8 |
| 7 | 16.6 | 18.9 | |
| 13.5 | 21.2 | ||
| 18.1 | |||
| 20.8 | |||
| 20.5 | |||
| means | 7 | 15 | 20 |
That is, the balls penetrated about
And theſe penetrations are nearly as the numbers 2, 4, 6, or 1, 2, 3; but the quantities of powder are as 2, 4, 8, or 1, 2, 4; ſo that the penetrations are as the charges as far as 4 ounces, but in a leſs ratio at 8 ounces, namely, leſs in the ra⯑tio of 3 to 4. And are indeed, ſo far, proportional to the logarithms of the charges.
Now, by the theory of penetrations, the depths ought to be as the charges, or, which is the ſame thing, as the ſquares of the velocities. But from our experiments it appears that the penetrations fall ſhort of that proportion in the higher charges. And therefore it would ſeem, that the reſiſting force of the wood is not uniformly the ſame; but that it increaſes a little with the increaſed velocity of the ball. And this probably may be occaſioned by the greater quantity of fibres driven be⯑fore the ball; which may thus increaſe the ſpring or reſiſtance of the wood, and ſo prevent the ball from penetrating ſo deep as it otherwiſe would do. But it will require ſarther experiments in ſuture to deter⯑mine this point more accurately.
[266]124. Before we conclude this tract, it may not be unuſeful to make a ſhort recapitulation of the more remarkable deductions that have been drawn from the experiments, in the courſe of theſe calculations. For by bringing them together into one collected point of view, we may, at any time, eaſily ſee what uſeful points of knowledge are hereby obtained, and thence be able to judge what remains yet to be done by future experiments. Having therefore experimented and examined all the objects that were pointed out in art. 5, p. 104, & ſeq. we ſhall juſt ſlightly mention the anſwers to theſe enquiries; which are either addi⯑tions to, or confirmations of, thoſe laid down p. 102, as drawn from our former experiments in the year 1775.
And 1ſt, then, it may be remarked that the former law, between the charge and velocity of ball, is again confirmed, namely, that the velo⯑city is directly as the ſquare root of the weight of powder, as far as to about the charge of 8 ounces: and ſo it would continue for all charges, were the guns of an indefinite length. But as the length of the charge is increaſed, and bears a more conſiderable proportion to the length of the bore, the velocity falls the more ſhort of that proportion.
2nd. That the velocity of the ball increaſes with the charge, to a cer⯑tain point, which is peculiar to each gun, where it is greateſt; and that by further increaſing the charge, the velocity gradually diminiſhes till the bore is quite full of powder. That this charge for the greateſt velocity is greater as the gun is longer, but not greater however in ſo high a proportion as the length of the gun is; ſo that the part of the bore filled with powder bears a leſs proportion to the whole in the long guns, than it does in the ſhorter ones; the part of the whole which is filled being indeed nearly in the reciprocal ſubduplicate ratio of the length of the empty part. And the other circumſtances are as in this [267]
| Gun no | Length of the bore | Length filled | Part of the whole | Weight of the powder |
| inches | inches | oz | ||
| 1 | 28.2 | 8.2 | 3/20 | 12 |
| 2 | 38.1 | 9.5 | 3/12 | 14 |
| 3 | 57.4 | 10.7 | 3/16 | 16 |
| 4 | 79.9 | 12.1 | 3/20 | 18 |
3dly. It appears that the velocity continually increaſes as the gun is longer, though the increaſe in velocity is but very ſmall in reſpect to the increaſe in length, the velocities being in a ratio ſomewhat leſs than that of the ſquare roots of the length of the bore, but ſomewhat greater than that of the cube roots of the length, and is indeed nearly in the middle ratio between the two. But the particular degrees of velocity for each gun, and charge, may be ſeen at p. 255 and 257.
4thly. It appears, from the table of ranges in art. 121, p. 263, that the range increaſes in a much leſs ratio than the velocity, and indeed is nearly as the ſquare root of the velocity, the gun and elevation being the ſame. And when this is compared with the property of the velocity and length of gun in the foregoing paragraph, we perceive that we gain extremely little in the range by a great increaſe in the length of the gun, the charge being the ſame. And indeed the range is nearly as the 5th root of the length of the bore; which is ſo ſmall an increaſe, as to amount only to about 1/7th part more range for a double length of gun.
5thly. From the ſame table in art. 121, it alſo appears that the time of ſlight is nearly as the range; the gun and elevation being the ſame.
[268]6thly. It appears that there is no difference cauſed in the velocity or range, by varying the weight of the gun, nor by the uſe of wads, nor by different degrees of ramming, nor by firing the charge of powder in different parts of it.
7thly. But a very great difference in the velocity ariſes from a ſmall degree of windage. Indeed with the uſual eſtabliſhed windage only, namely, about 1/20th of the caliber, no leſs than between ⅓ and ¼ of the powder eſcapes and is loſt. And as the balls are often ſmaller than that ſize, it frequently happens that ½ the powder is loſt by unneceſſary windage.
8thly. It appears that the reſiſting force of wood, to balls fired into it, is not conſtant. And that the depths penetrated by different velo⯑cities or charges, are nearly as the logarithms of the charges, inſtead of being as the charges themſelves, or, which is the ſame thing, as the ſquare of the velocity.
9thly. Theſe, and moſt other experiments, ſhew that balls are greatly deflected from the direction they are projected in; and that ſo much as 300 or 400 yards in a range of a mile, or almoſt ¼th of the range, which is nearly a deflection of an angle of 15 degrees.
10thly. Finally, theſe experiments furniſh us with the following con⯑comitant data, to a tolerable degree of accuracy; namely, the dimenſions and elevation of the gun, the weight and dimenſions of the powder and ſhot, with the range and time of ſlight, and firſt velocity of the ball; from which it is to be hoped that the meaſure of the reſiſtance of the air to projectiles may be determined, and thereby lay the foundation for a true and practical ſyſtem of gunnery, which may be as well uſeful in ſervice as in theory; eſpecially after a ſew more accurate ranges are determined with better balls than ſome of the laſt employed on the fore⯑going ranges.
Pa. 6, l. 17, for − ½, read 1/−2.
Pa. 12, l. 18, for operation, read operations.
Pa. 59, l. 7, for 3√r, read [...].
Pa. 259, l. 19, at the end of Art. 116, add as follows; or ſtill nearer in the reciprocal ſubduplicate ratio of the empty part of the bore before the charge. And by this rule finding the part for the longeſt gun, or no 4, it will be found to be 3/20, or 12.1 inches in length, anſwering to 18 ounces of powder. So that the whole ſet of numbers, for the greateſt velocity, will be as follows:
| Gun no | Length of the bore | The Charge | ||
| Wt | Length | |||
| oz | Inches | Part of whole | ||
| 1 | 28.2 | 12 | 8.2 | 3/10 |
| 2 | 38.1 | 14 | 9.5 | 3/12 |
| 3 | 57.4 | 16 | 10.7 | 3/10 |
| 4 | 79.9 | 18 | 12.1 | 3/20 |
CONTAINING the Common, Hyperbolic, and Logiſtic Loga⯑rithms. Alſo Sines, Tangents, Secants, and verſed Sines, both natural and logarithmic. Together with ſeveral other Tables uſeful in Mathematical Calculations. To which is prefixed, a large and original Hiſtory of the Diſcoveries and Writings relating to thoſe Subjects. With the complete Deſcription and Uſe of the Tables. Price 14s. in Boards.